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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  95        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 129        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 131            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 132        ),
 133        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 143        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 144        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 158    }
 159
 160    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 161    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 162    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 163
 164    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 165    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 166    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 167
 168    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 169    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 172    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 173
 174    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 175    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 176
 177    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 178    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 179
 180    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 181    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 182
 183    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 184    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 185
 186    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 187    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 188
 189    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 190    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 193    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 194
 195    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 196    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 197
 198    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 199    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 200
 201    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 202    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 203
 204    # Whether join hints should be generated
 205    JOIN_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # Whether table hints should be generated
 208    TABLE_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether query hints should be generated
 211    QUERY_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 214    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 215
 216    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 217    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 218
 219    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 220    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 221
 222    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 223    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 224
 225    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 226    RETURNING_END = True
 227
 228    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 229    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 230
 231    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 232    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 233
 234    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 235    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 236
 237    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 238    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 239
 240    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 241    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 242    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 243    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 244
 245    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 246    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 247
 248    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 249    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 250
 251    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 252    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 253
 254    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 255    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 256
 257    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 258    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 259
 260    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 261    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 262
 263    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 264    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 265
 266    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 267    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 268
 269    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 270    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 271
 272    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 273    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 274
 275    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 276    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 277
 278    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 279    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 280
 281    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 282    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 283
 284    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 285    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 286
 287    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 288    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 289
 290    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 291    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 292
 293    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 294    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 295
 296    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 297    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 298
 299    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 300    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 301
 302    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 303    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 304
 305    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 306    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 307
 308    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 309    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 310
 311    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 312    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 313
 314    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 315    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 316
 317    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 318    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 319
 320    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 321    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 322    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 323
 324    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 325    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 326
 327    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 328    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 329
 330    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 332
 333    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 334    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 335
 336    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 337    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 338
 339    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 340    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 341
 342    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 343    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 344    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 345    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 346
 347    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 348    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 349
 350    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 351    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 352
 353    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 354    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 355
 356    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 357    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 358
 359    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 360    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 361
 362    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 363    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 364
 365    # The HEX function name
 366    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 367
 368    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 369    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 370
 371    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 372        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 373        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 374        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 375        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 376        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 377        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 382    }
 383
 384    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 385        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 386        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 387        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 388        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 389        "DAYS": "DAY",
 390        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 391        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 392        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 393        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 394    }
 395
 396    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 397        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 398        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 399        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 400        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 401        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 402            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 403            if e.args.get("windows")
 404            else ""
 405        ),
 406    }
 407
 408    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 409
 410    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 411
 412    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 413    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 414
 415    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 416        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 424        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 438        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 440        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 443        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 453        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 456        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 457        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 459        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 462        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 485        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 490        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 493        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 494        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495    }
 496
 497    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 498    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 499
 500    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 501    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 502        exp.Create,
 503        exp.Delete,
 504        exp.Drop,
 505        exp.From,
 506        exp.Insert,
 507        exp.Join,
 508        exp.Select,
 509        exp.SetOperation,
 510        exp.Update,
 511        exp.Where,
 512        exp.With,
 513    )
 514
 515    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 516    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 517        exp.Binary,
 518        exp.SetOperation,
 519    )
 520
 521    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 522    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 523        exp.Column,
 524        exp.Literal,
 525        exp.Neg,
 526        exp.Paren,
 527    )
 528
 529    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 530        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 531        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 532        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 533        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 534    }
 535
 536    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 537    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 538
 539    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 540
 541    __slots__ = (
 542        "pretty",
 543        "identify",
 544        "normalize",
 545        "pad",
 546        "_indent",
 547        "normalize_functions",
 548        "unsupported_level",
 549        "max_unsupported",
 550        "leading_comma",
 551        "max_text_width",
 552        "comments",
 553        "dialect",
 554        "unsupported_messages",
 555        "_escaped_quote_end",
 556        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 557        "_next_name",
 558    )
 559
 560    def __init__(
 561        self,
 562        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 563        identify: str | bool = False,
 564        normalize: bool = False,
 565        pad: int = 2,
 566        indent: int = 2,
 567        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 568        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 569        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 570        leading_comma: bool = False,
 571        max_text_width: int = 80,
 572        comments: bool = True,
 573        dialect: DialectType = None,
 574    ):
 575        import sqlglot
 576        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 577
 578        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 579        self.identify = identify
 580        self.normalize = normalize
 581        self.pad = pad
 582        self._indent = indent
 583        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 584        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 585        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 586        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 587        self.comments = comments
 588        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 589
 590        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 591        self.normalize_functions = (
 592            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 593        )
 594
 595        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 596        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 597            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 598        )
 599        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 600            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 601        )
 602
 603        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 604
 605    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 606        """
 607        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 608
 609        Args:
 610            expression: The syntax tree.
 611            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 612                it is safer to copy.
 613
 614        Returns:
 615            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 616        """
 617        if copy:
 618            expression = expression.copy()
 619
 620        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 621
 622        self.unsupported_messages = []
 623        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 624
 625        if self.pretty:
 626            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 627
 628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 629            return sql
 630
 631        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 632            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 633                logger.warning(msg)
 634        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 635            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 636
 637        return sql
 638
 639    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 640        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 641        if (
 642            not expression.parent
 643            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 644            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 645        ):
 646            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 647
 648            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 649
 650        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 651            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 652
 653            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 654
 655        return expression
 656
 657    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 659            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 660        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 661
 662    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 663        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 664
 665    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 666        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 667
 668    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 669        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 670        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 671        return comment
 672
 673    def maybe_comment(
 674        self,
 675        sql: str,
 676        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 677        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 678        separated: bool = False,
 679    ) -> str:
 680        comments = (
 681            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 682            if self.comments
 683            else None
 684        )
 685
 686        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 687            return sql
 688
 689        comments_sql = " ".join(
 690            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 691        )
 692
 693        if not comments_sql:
 694            return sql
 695
 696        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 697
 698        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 699            return (
 700                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 701                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 702                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 703            )
 704
 705        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 706
 707    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 708        this_sql = (
 709            self.sql(expression)
 710            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 711            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 712        )
 713        if not this_sql:
 714            return "()"
 715
 716        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 717        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 718
 719    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 720        original = self.identify
 721        self.identify = False
 722        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 723        self.identify = original
 724        return result
 725
 726    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 727        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 728            return name.upper()
 729        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 730            return name.lower()
 731        return name
 732
 733    def indent(
 734        self,
 735        sql: str,
 736        level: int = 0,
 737        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 738        skip_first: bool = False,
 739        skip_last: bool = False,
 740    ) -> str:
 741        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 742            return sql
 743
 744        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 745        lines = sql.split("\n")
 746
 747        return "\n".join(
 748            (
 749                line
 750                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 751                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 752            )
 753            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 754        )
 755
 756    def sql(
 757        self,
 758        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 759        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 760        comment: bool = True,
 761    ) -> str:
 762        if not expression:
 763            return ""
 764
 765        if isinstance(expression, str):
 766            return expression
 767
 768        if key:
 769            value = expression.args.get(key)
 770            if value:
 771                return self.sql(value)
 772            return ""
 773
 774        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 775
 776        if callable(transform):
 777            sql = transform(self, expression)
 778        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 779            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 780
 781            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 782                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 783            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 784                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 785            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 786                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 787            else:
 788                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 789        else:
 790            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 791
 792        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 793
 794    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 795        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 797        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 798
 799    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 800        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 801        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        options = expression.args.get("options")
 803        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 804        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 805        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 806        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 807        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 808
 809    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 810        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 811            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 812        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 813        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 814
 815    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 816        return ".".join(
 817            self.sql(part)
 818            for part in (
 819                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 820                expression.args.get("db"),
 821                expression.args.get("table"),
 822                expression.args.get("this"),
 823            )
 824            if part
 825        )
 826
 827    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 828        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 829
 830        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 831            join_mark = ""
 832            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 833
 834        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 835
 836    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 840        return f"{position}{this}"
 841
 842    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 843        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 845        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 846        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 847        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 848        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 849        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 850        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 851
 852        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 853            kind = ""
 854
 855        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 856
 857    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 860        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 861
 862    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 865            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 866        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 867            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 868        else:
 869            persisted = ""
 870        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 871
 872    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 873        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 874
 875    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 876        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 877            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 878        else:
 879            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880
 881        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 882
 883    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 884        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 885    ) -> str:
 886        this = ""
 887        if expression.this is not None:
 888            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 889            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 890
 891        start = expression.args.get("start")
 892        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 893        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 894        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 895        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 896        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 897        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 898        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 899        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 900        cycle_sql = ""
 901
 902        if cycle is not None:
 903            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 904            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 905
 906        sequence_opts = ""
 907        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 908            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 909            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 910
 911        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 912        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 913
 914        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 915
 916    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 917        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 918    ) -> str:
 919        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 920        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 921        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 922
 923    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 924        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 925    ) -> str:
 926        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 927
 928    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 929        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 930
 931    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 932        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 933
 934    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 935        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 936        if desc is not None:
 937            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 938        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 939
 940    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 943        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 944        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 945        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 946        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 947        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 948
 949    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 950        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 951
 952    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 953        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 954        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 955        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 956
 957        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 958
 959        properties_sql = ""
 960        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 961            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 962        ):
 963            properties_sql = self.sql(
 964                exp.Properties(
 965                    expressions=[
 966                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 968                    ]
 969                )
 970            )
 971
 972            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 973                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 974            elif not self.pretty:
 975                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 976                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 977
 978        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 979        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 980
 981        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 982        if expression_sql:
 983            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 984
 985            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 986                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 987                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 988                        exp.Properties(
 989                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 990                        ),
 991                        wrapped=False,
 992                    )
 993                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 994                else:
 995                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 996
 997        postindex_props_sql = ""
 998        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 999            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1001                wrapped=False,
1002                prefix=" ",
1003            )
1004
1005        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1006        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1007        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1008
1009        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1010        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1011
1012        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1013        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1014            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1015                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1016                sep=" ",
1017                prefix=" ",
1018                wrapped=False,
1019            )
1020
1021        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1022
1023        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1025            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(
1027                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1028                ),
1029                sep=" ",
1030                prefix=" ",
1031                wrapped=False,
1032            )
1033
1034        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1035        no_schema_binding = (
1036            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1037        )
1038
1039        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1040        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1041
1042        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1043        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1044
1045    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1046        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1047        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1048        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1049        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1050        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1051        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1052        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1053        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1054        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1055        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1056
1057        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1058        if cache is None:
1059            cache_str = ""
1060        elif cache is True:
1061            cache_str = " CACHE"
1062        else:
1063            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1064
1065        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1066        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1067
1068        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1069
1070    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1072        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1073        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1074        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1075
1076    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1077        style = expression.args.get("style")
1078        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1079        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1080
1081    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1082        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1083        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1084
1085    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1086        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1087        if with_:
1088            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1089        return sql
1090
1091    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1092        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1093        recursive = (
1094            "RECURSIVE "
1095            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1096            else ""
1097        )
1098
1099        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1100
1101    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1102        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1103
1104        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1105        if materialized is False:
1106            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1107        elif materialized:
1108            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1109
1110        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1111
1112    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1113        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1115        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1116
1117        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1118            columns = ""
1119            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1120
1121        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1122            alias = self._next_name()
1123
1124        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1125
1126    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1128        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1129            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1130        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1131
1132    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1135            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1136        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1137
1138    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1142        return this
1143
1144    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1147
1148        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1149            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1150            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1151        else:
1152            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1153            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1154
1155        if escape:
1156            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1157            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1158        else:
1159            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1160            escape_sql = ""
1161
1162        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1163            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1164
1165        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1166
1167    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1168        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1169        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1170
1171    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1173        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1174        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1175        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1176
1177    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1178        type_value = expression.this
1179
1180        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1181            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1182        else:
1183            type_sql = (
1184                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1185                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1186                else type_value
1187            )
1188
1189        nested = ""
1190        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        values = ""
1192
1193        if interior:
1194            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1195                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1196                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1197                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1198                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1199                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1200            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1201                nested = f" {interior}"
1202            else:
1203                nested = f"({interior})"
1204
1205        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1206        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1207            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1208            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1209        ):
1210            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1211
1212        return type_sql
1213
1214    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1215        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1216        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1217        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1218        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1219
1220    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1223        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1224        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1225        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1226        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1227        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1228        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1229        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1230        if self.RETURNING_END:
1231            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1232        else:
1233            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1234        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1235
1236    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1239        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1240        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1241        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1242        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1243        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1244        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1245        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1246        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1247        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1248        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1249        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1250
1251    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1252        return self.set_operations(expression)
1253
1254    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1255        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1256
1257    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1258        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1259        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1260        count = expression.args.get("count")
1261        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1262        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1263            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1264        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1265        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1266
1267    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1268        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1269            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1270            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1271            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1272
1273        agg = expression.this
1274        agg_arg = agg.this
1275        cond = expression.expression.this
1276        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1277        return self.sql(agg)
1278
1279    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1280        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1281            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1282            return ""
1283
1284        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1285
1286    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1287        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1288        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1289        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1290        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1291        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1292        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1293        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1294        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1295        if include:
1296            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1297        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1298        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1299        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1300        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1301        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1302        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1303
1304        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1305
1306    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1307        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1308        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1309        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1310        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1312        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1313        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1314
1315        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1316
1317        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1318        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1319
1320    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1321        text = expression.name
1322        lower = text.lower()
1323        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1324        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1325        if (
1326            expression.quoted
1327            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1328            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1329            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1330        ):
1331            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1332        return text
1333
1334    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1335        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1336        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1337            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1338
1339        return text
1340
1341    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1342        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1343        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1344            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1345        return text
1346
1347    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1348        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1349        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1350        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1351        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1352        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1353
1354    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1355        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1356        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1357
1358    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1359        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1360
1361    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1362        root_properties = []
1363        with_properties = []
1364
1365        for p in expression.expressions:
1366            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1367            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1368                with_properties.append(p)
1369            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1370                root_properties.append(p)
1371
1372        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1373        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1374
1375        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1376            with_props = " " + with_props
1377
1378        return root_props + with_props
1379
1380    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1381        if properties.expressions:
1382            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1383        return ""
1384
1385    def properties(
1386        self,
1387        properties: exp.Properties,
1388        prefix: str = "",
1389        sep: str = ", ",
1390        suffix: str = "",
1391        wrapped: bool = True,
1392    ) -> str:
1393        if properties.expressions:
1394            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1395            if expressions:
1396                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1397                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1398        return ""
1399
1400    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1401        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1402
1403    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1404        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1405        for p in properties.expressions:
1406            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1407            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1408                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1409            else:
1410                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1411
1412        return properties_locs
1413
1414    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1415        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1416            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1417        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1418
1419    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1420        property_cls = expression.__class__
1421        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1422            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1423
1424        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1425        if not property_name:
1426            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1427
1428        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1429
1430    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1431        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1432            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1433            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1434
1435            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1436            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1437                like = f"({like})"
1438
1439            return like
1440
1441        if expression.expressions:
1442            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1443
1444        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1445        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1446
1447    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1448        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1449        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1450        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1451
1452    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1453        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1454        local = expression.args.get("local")
1455        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1456        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1457        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1458        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1459        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1460
1461    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1462        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1464        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1465
1466    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1467        if expression.args.get("default"):
1468            property = "DEFAULT"
1469        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1470            property = "ON"
1471        else:
1472            property = "OFF"
1473        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1474
1475    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1476        if expression.args.get("no"):
1477            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1478        if expression.args.get("default"):
1479            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1480
1481        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1482        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1483
1484    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1485        default = expression.args.get("default")
1486        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1487        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1488        if default or minimum or maximum:
1489            if default:
1490                prop = "DEFAULT"
1491            elif minimum:
1492                prop = "MINIMUM"
1493            else:
1494                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1495            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1496        units = expression.args.get("units")
1497        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1498        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1499
1500    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1501        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1502        always = expression.args.get("always")
1503        default = expression.args.get("default")
1504        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1505        never = expression.args.get("never")
1506
1507        if autotemp is not None:
1508            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1509        elif always:
1510            prop = "ALWAYS"
1511        elif default:
1512            prop = "DEFAULT"
1513        elif manual:
1514            prop = "MANUAL"
1515        elif never:
1516            prop = "NEVER"
1517        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1518
1519    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1520        no = expression.args.get("no")
1521        no = " NO" if no else ""
1522        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1523        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1524        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1525        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1526        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1527
1528    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1529        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1530            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1531        if expression.this:
1532            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1533            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1534            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1535
1536        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1537        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1538        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1539
1540    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1541        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1542
1543        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1544        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1545            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1546        else:
1547            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1548
1549        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1550
1551    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1552        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1553        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1554        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1555        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1556        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1557        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1558        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1559
1560    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1561        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1562        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1563        statistics_sql = ""
1564        if statistics is not None:
1565            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1566        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1567
1568    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1571        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1572        data_consistency = (
1573            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1574        )
1575        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1576        retention_period = (
1577            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1578        )
1579
1580        if this:
1581            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1582        else:
1583            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1584
1585        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1586
1587        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1588
1589    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1590        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1591        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1592
1593        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1594            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1595        else:
1596            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1597
1598        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1599        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1600        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1601        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1602        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1603        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1604        if is_function:
1605            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1606        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1607
1608        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1609        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1610        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1611        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1612        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1613        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1614        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1615        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1616
1617        if self.RETURNING_END:
1618            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1619        else:
1620            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1621
1622        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1623        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1624
1625    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1626        return self.set_operations(expression)
1627
1628    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1629        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1630
1631    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1633
1634    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1635        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1636        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1638        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1639        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1640
1641    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1642        return expression.name
1643
1644    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1645        return expression.name
1646
1647    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1648        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1649
1650        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1651        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1652
1653        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1654        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1655        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1656
1657        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1658        if expressions:
1659            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1660            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1661
1662        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1663
1664    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1665        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1666
1667    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1668        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1669        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1670        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1671        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1672        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1673        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1674        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1675        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1676        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1677        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1678        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1679        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1680        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1681
1682    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1683        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1684
1685    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1686        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1687        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1688        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1689        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1690
1691    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1694        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1695        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1696
1697    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1698        return ".".join(
1699            self.sql(part)
1700            for part in (
1701                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1702                expression.args.get("db"),
1703                expression.args.get("this"),
1704            )
1705            if part is not None
1706        )
1707
1708    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1709        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1710        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1711        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1712        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1713        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1714        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1715        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1716        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1717        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1718        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1719        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1720        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1721        joins = self.indent(
1722            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1723        )
1724        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1725
1726        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1727        if file_format:
1728            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1729            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1730            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1731
1732        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1733        if ordinality:
1734            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1735            alias = ""
1736
1737        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1738        if when:
1739            table = f"{table} {when}"
1740
1741        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1742
1743    def tablesample_sql(
1744        self,
1745        expression: exp.TableSample,
1746        sep: str = " AS ",
1747        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1748    ) -> str:
1749        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1750            table = expression.this.copy()
1751            table.set("alias", None)
1752            this = self.sql(table)
1753            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1754        else:
1755            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1756            alias = ""
1757
1758        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1759        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1760        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1761        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1762        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1763        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1764        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1765        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1766        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1767
1768        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1769        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1770            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1771
1772        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1773        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1774            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1775
1776        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1777        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1778            expr = f"({expr})"
1779
1780        return (
1781            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1782        )
1783
1784    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1786
1787        if expression.this:
1788            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1789            if not expressions:
1790                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1791
1792            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1793            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1794            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1795            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1796            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1797
1798        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1799        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1800        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1801        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1802        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1803        if include_nulls is not None:
1804            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1805        else:
1806            nulls = ""
1807        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1808
1809    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1810        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1811        kind = expression.text("kind")
1812        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1813        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1814
1815    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1816        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1817
1818    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1820        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1821        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1822        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1823        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1824        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1825        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1826        if self.RETURNING_END:
1827            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1828        else:
1829            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1830        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1832
1833    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1834        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1835
1836        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1837        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1838            args = self.expressions(expression)
1839            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1840            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1841            values = (
1842                f"({values})"
1843                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1844                else values
1845            )
1846            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1847
1848        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1849        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1850        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1851
1852        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1853
1854        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1855            row = tup.expressions
1856
1857            if i == 0 and column_names:
1858                row = [
1859                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1860                ]
1861
1862            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1863
1864        if self.pretty:
1865            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1866            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1867            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1868            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1869            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1870
1871        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1872        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1873        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1874
1875    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1876        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1877
1878    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1879        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1880        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1881        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1882
1883    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1884        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1885
1886    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1887        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1888        if group_by_all is True:
1889            modifier = " ALL"
1890        elif group_by_all is False:
1891            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1892        else:
1893            modifier = ""
1894
1895        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1896
1897        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1898        grouping_sets = (
1899            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1900        )
1901
1902        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1903        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1904            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1905        else:
1906            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1907            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1908
1909        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1910        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1911            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1912        else:
1913            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1914            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1915
1916        groupings = csv(
1917            grouping_sets,
1918            cube_sql,
1919            rollup_sql,
1920            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1921            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1922        )
1923
1924        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1925            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1926
1927        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1928
1929    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1930        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1931        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1932
1933    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1934        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1935        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1936        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1937        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1938        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1939        return start + connect
1940
1941    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1942        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1943
1944    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1945        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1946            side = None
1947        else:
1948            side = expression.side
1949
1950        op_sql = " ".join(
1951            op
1952            for op in (
1953                expression.method,
1954                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1955                side,
1956                expression.kind,
1957                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1958            )
1959            if op
1960        )
1961        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1962        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1963        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1964        using = expression.args.get("using")
1965
1966        if not on_sql and using:
1967            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1968
1969        this = expression.this
1970        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1971
1972        if on_sql:
1973            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1974            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1975            if using:
1976                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1977            else:
1978                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1979        elif not op_sql:
1980            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1981                return f" {this_sql}"
1982
1983            return f", {this_sql}"
1984
1985        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1986            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1987
1988        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1989
1990    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1991        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1992        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1993        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1994
1995    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1996        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1997
1998        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1999        if cross_apply is True:
2000            op = "INNER JOIN "
2001        elif cross_apply is False:
2002            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2003        else:
2004            op = ""
2005
2006        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2007
2008    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2010
2011        if expression.args.get("view"):
2012            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2013            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2014            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2015            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2016            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2017            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2018
2019        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2020        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2021        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2022
2023    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2025
2026        args = [
2027            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2028            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2029            if e
2030        ]
2031
2032        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2033        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2034        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2035        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2036
2037        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2038
2039    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        value = expression.expression
2042        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2043        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2044        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2045        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2046
2047    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2048        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2049        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2052        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2053        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2054        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2055        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2056
2057    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2058        expressions = (
2059            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2060        )
2061        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2062        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2063
2064    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2065        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2066
2067    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2068        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2069            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2070            return ""
2071
2072        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2075        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2076
2077        if wait is not None:
2078            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2079                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2080            else:
2081                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2082
2083        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2084
2085    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2086        text = expression.this or ""
2087        if expression.is_string:
2088            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2089        return text
2090
2091    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2092        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2093            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2094            text = "".join(
2095                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2096            )
2097
2098        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2099            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2100        )
2101
2102    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2103        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2104        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2105        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2106        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2107        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2108        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2109        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2110        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2111        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2112        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2113        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2114
2115    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2116        return "NULL"
2117
2118    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2119        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2120
2121    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2122        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2123        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2124        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2125        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2126        interpolated_values = [
2127            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2128            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2129        ]
2130        interpolate = (
2131            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2132        )
2133        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2134
2135    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2136        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2137        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2138        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2139        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2140        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2141        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2142        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2143
2144    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2145        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2146
2147    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2148        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2149
2150    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2151        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2152
2153    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2154        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2155        asc = not desc
2156
2157        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2158        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2159        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2160        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2161        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2162
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164
2165        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2166        nulls_sort_change = ""
2167        if nulls_first and (
2168            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2169        ):
2170            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2171        elif (
2172            nulls_last
2173            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2174            and not nulls_are_last
2175        ):
2176            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2177
2178        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2179        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2180            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2181            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2182                self.unsupported(
2183                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2184                )
2185                nulls_sort_change = ""
2186            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2187                if expression.this.is_int:
2188                    self.unsupported(
2189                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2190                    )
2191                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2192                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2193                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2194                nulls_sort_change = ""
2195
2196        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2197        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2198
2199        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2200
2201    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2202        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2203        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2204
2205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2206
2207        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2208
2209    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2210        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2211        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2212        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2213        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2214        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2215        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2216        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2217        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2218        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2219        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2220        definition_sqls = [
2221            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2222            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2223        ]
2224        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2225        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2226        body = "".join(
2227            (
2228                partition,
2229                order,
2230                measures,
2231                rows,
2232                after,
2233                pattern,
2234                define,
2235            )
2236        )
2237        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2238        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2239        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2240
2241    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2242        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2243
2244        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2245            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2246        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2247            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2248
2249        return csv(
2250            *sqls,
2251            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2252            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2253            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2254            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2255            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2256            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2257            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2258            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2259            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2260            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2261            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2262            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2263            self.options_modifier(expression),
2264            sep="",
2265        )
2266
2267    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2268        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2269        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2270
2271    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2272        return ""
2273
2274    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2275        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2276    ) -> t.List[str]:
2277        return [
2278            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2279            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2280        ]
2281
2282    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2283        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2284        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2285        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2286
2287    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2288        into = expression.args.get("into")
2289        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2290            into.pop()
2291
2292        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2293        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2294        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2296
2297        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2298        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2299            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2300            limit.pop()
2301        else:
2302            top = ""
2303
2304        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2305
2306        if kind:
2307            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2308                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2309            else:
2310                if kind == "STRUCT":
2311                    expressions = self.expressions(
2312                        sqls=[
2313                            self.sql(
2314                                exp.Struct(
2315                                    expressions=[
2316                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2317                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2318                                        else e
2319                                        for e in expression.expressions
2320                                    ]
2321                                )
2322                            )
2323                        ]
2324                    )
2325                kind = ""
2326
2327        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2328        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2329        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2330        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2331        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2332            expression,
2333            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2334            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2335            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2336        )
2337
2338        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2339
2340        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2341            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2342                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2343            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2344                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2345            else:
2346                table_kind = ""
2347            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2348
2349        return sql
2350
2351    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2354        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2355
2356    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2357        if expression.expressions:
2358            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2359        return ""
2360
2361    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2362        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2363        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2364        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2365        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2366        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2367        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2368        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2369
2370    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2371        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2372        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2373
2374    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2376        kind = expression.text("kind")
2377        if kind:
2378            kind = f"{kind}."
2379        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2380
2381    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2382        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2383
2384    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2385        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2386        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2387
2388        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2389        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2390
2391        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2392        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2393
2394    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2395        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2396        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2397
2398    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2399        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2400            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2401            order = expression.args.get("order")
2402
2403            if limit or order:
2404                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2405
2406                if limit:
2407                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2408                if order:
2409                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2410                return self.sql(select)
2411
2412        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2413        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2414
2415        while stack:
2416            node = stack.pop()
2417
2418            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2419                stack.append(node.expression)
2420                stack.append(
2421                    self.maybe_comment(
2422                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2423                        comments=node.comments,
2424                        separated=True,
2425                    )
2426                )
2427                stack.append(node.this)
2428            else:
2429                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2430
2431        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2432        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2433        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2434
2435    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2436        return self.set_operations(expression)
2437
2438    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2439        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2440        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2441        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2442        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2443
2444    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2445        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2446
2447        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2448        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2449
2450        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2451            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2452                alias.append("columns", offset)
2453
2454        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2455            columns = alias.columns
2456            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2457        else:
2458            alias = self.sql(alias)
2459
2460        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2461        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2462            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2463        else:
2464            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2465                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2466            elif offset:
2467                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2468            else:
2469                suffix = alias
2470
2471        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2472
2473    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2474        return ""
2475
2476    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2477        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2478        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2479
2480    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2482        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2483        order = expression.args.get("order")
2484        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2485        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2486        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2487        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2488
2489        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2490
2491        first = expression.args.get("first")
2492        if first is None:
2493            first = ""
2494        else:
2495            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2496
2497        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2498            return f"{this} {alias}"
2499
2500        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2501        return f"{this} ({args})"
2502
2503    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2504        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2505        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2506
2507    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2508        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2509        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2510        end = (
2511            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2512            or "CURRENT ROW"
2513        )
2514        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2515
2516    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2519        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2520
2521    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2523        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2524        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2525        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2526
2527    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2528        return apply_index_offset(
2529            expression.this,
2530            expression.expressions,
2531            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2532        )
2533
2534    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2535        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2536        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2538
2539    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2540        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2541
2542    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2545            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2546                this = self.wrap(this)
2547            return f"ANY{this}"
2548        return f"ANY {this}"
2549
2550    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2551        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2552
2553    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2556
2557        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2558            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2559            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2560
2561        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2562
2563        if default:
2564            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2565
2566        statements.append("END")
2567
2568        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2569            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2570
2571        return " ".join(statements)
2572
2573    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2576        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2577
2578    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2579        order = expression.args.get("order")
2580        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2581        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2582
2583    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2585        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2586        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2587
2588    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2589        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2590
2591        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2592            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2593        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2594            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2595        else:
2596            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2597
2598    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2599        args = expression.expressions
2600        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2601            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2602
2603        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2604            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2605
2606        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2607            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2608
2609        return args
2610
2611    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2612        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2613
2614        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2615        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2616            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2617
2618        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2619
2620    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2621        return self.func(
2622            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2623        )
2624
2625    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2626        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2627        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2628
2629    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2630        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2631        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2632        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2633        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2634        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2635        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2636        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2637        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2638
2639    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2640        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2641        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2642        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2643        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2644
2645    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2646        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2647
2648    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2649        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2650        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2651        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2652
2653    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2654        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2655
2656    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2657        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2658        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2659
2660    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2661        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2662            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2663            if not callable(transform):
2664                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2665                return ""
2666
2667            return transform(self, expression)
2668
2669        if isinstance(expression, int):
2670            return str(expression)
2671
2672        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2673            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2674            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2675        else:
2676            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2677            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2678
2679        return escaped
2680
2681    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2683
2684    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2685        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2686        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2687
2688        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2689        if unique_keys is not None:
2690            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2691        else:
2692            unique_keys = ""
2693
2694        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2695        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2696        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2697        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2698
2699        return self.func(
2700            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2701            *expression.expressions,
2702            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2703        )
2704
2705    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2706        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2707
2708    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2709        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2710        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2711        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2712        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2713        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2714        return self.func(
2715            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2716        )
2717
2718    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2721        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2722        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2723        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2724        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2725        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2726        return self.func(
2727            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2728            this,
2729            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2730        )
2731
2732    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2733        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2734        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2735        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2736
2737        if nested_schema:
2738            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2739
2740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2741        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2742        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2743        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2744
2745    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2746        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2747
2748    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2751        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2752        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2753        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2754        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2755        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2756        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2757        return self.func(
2758            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2759        )
2760
2761    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2763        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2764        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2765        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2766        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2767        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2768
2769    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2771        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2772        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2773        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2774        with_ = (
2775            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2776            if expressions
2777            else ""
2778        )
2779        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2780
2781    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2782        query = expression.args.get("query")
2783        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2784        field = expression.args.get("field")
2785        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2786
2787        if query:
2788            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2789        elif unnest:
2790            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2791        elif field:
2792            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2793        else:
2794            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2795
2796        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2797
2798    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2799        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2800
2801    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2802        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2803        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2804            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2805        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2806
2807        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2808            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2809            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2810
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        if this:
2813            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2814            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2815
2816        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2817
2818    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2819        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2820
2821    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2824        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2825        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2826        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2827        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2828
2829    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2830        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2831
2832    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2833        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2834        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2835
2836    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2837        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2838        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2840        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2841
2842    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2843        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2844
2845    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2846        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2847        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2848        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2849
2850    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2851        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2852        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2853
2854        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2855            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2856        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2857            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2858
2859        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2860
2861    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2863
2864    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2866        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2867        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2868
2869    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2872        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2873
2874    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2876        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2877        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2878
2879    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2880        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2881
2882    def and_sql(
2883        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2884    ) -> str:
2885        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2886
2887    def or_sql(
2888        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2889    ) -> str:
2890        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2891
2892    def xor_sql(
2893        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2894    ) -> str:
2895        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2896
2897    def connector_sql(
2898        self,
2899        expression: exp.Connector,
2900        op: str,
2901        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2902    ) -> str:
2903        if stack is not None:
2904            if expression.expressions:
2905                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2906            else:
2907                stack.append(expression.right)
2908                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2909                    for comment in expression.comments:
2910                        if comment:
2911                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2912                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2913            return op
2914
2915        stack = [expression]
2916        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2917        ops = set()
2918
2919        while stack:
2920            node = stack.pop()
2921            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2922                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2923            else:
2924                sql = self.sql(node)
2925                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2926                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2927                else:
2928                    sqls.append(sql)
2929
2930        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2931        return sep.join(sqls)
2932
2933    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2934        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2935
2936    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2937        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2938
2939    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2940        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2941
2942    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2943        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2944
2945    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2946        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2947
2948    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2949        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2950
2951    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2952        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2953        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2954        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2955        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2956        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2957        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2958        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2959
2960    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2961        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2962        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2963
2964    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2965        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2966
2967    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2968        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2969            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2970        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2971
2972    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2973        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2974
2975    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2978        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2979        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2980        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2981        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2982
2983    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2985        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2986        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2987        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2988        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2989        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2990        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2991        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2992        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2993
2994    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2995        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2996        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2997        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2998        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2999
3000        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3001            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3002
3003        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3004
3005    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3006        return "BEGIN"
3007
3008    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3009        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3010        if chain is not None:
3011            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3012
3013        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3014
3015    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3016        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3017        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3018        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3019
3020    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022
3023        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3024        if dtype:
3025            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3026            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3027            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3028            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3029            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3030
3031        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3032        if default:
3033            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3034
3035        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3036        if comment:
3037            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3038
3039        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3040        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3041
3042        if not drop and not allow_null:
3043            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3044
3045        if allow_null is not None:
3046            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3047            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3048
3049        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3050
3051    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3053        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3054            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3055        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3056
3057    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3058        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3061        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3062        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3063
3064    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3065        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3066            # Remove db from tables
3067            expression = expression.transform(
3068                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3069            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3072
3073    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3074        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3075        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3076        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3077        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3078
3079    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3080        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3081        return f"SET {exprs}"
3082
3083    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3084        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3085
3086        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3087            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3088        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3089            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3090        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3091            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3092        else:
3093            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3094
3095        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3096        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3097        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3098        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3099        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3100        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3101        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3102
3103    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3104        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3105            return self.expressions(
3106                expression,
3107                key="actions",
3108                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3109            )
3110        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3111
3112    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3113        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3114        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3115        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3116
3117    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3118        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3119
3120    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3121        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3122
3123        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3124            case = exp.case()
3125            for arg in expression.expressions:
3126                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3127            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3128
3129        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3130
3131        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3132        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3133        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3134
3135    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3136        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3137
3138    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3139        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3140
3141    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3142        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3143        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3144        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3145        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3146
3147    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3148        return self.sql(
3149            exp.Cast(
3150                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3151                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3152            )
3153        )
3154
3155    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3156        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3157            return self.func(
3158                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3159            )
3160        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3161
3162    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3163        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3164
3165        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3166            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3167
3168        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3169            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3170                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3171
3172        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3173            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3174                return self.sql(
3175                    exp.cast(
3176                        l / r,
3177                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3178                    )
3179                )
3180
3181        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3182
3183    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3184        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3185
3186    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3187        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3188
3189    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3190        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3191
3192    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3193        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3194
3195    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3196        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3197
3198    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3199        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3200
3201    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3202        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3203
3204    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3205        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3206
3207    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3209
3210    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3211        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3212
3213    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3214        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3215
3216    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3217        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3218            return self.sql(
3219                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3220            )
3221        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3222
3223    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3224        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3225
3226    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3228
3229    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3230        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3231
3232    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3234
3235    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3236        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3237
3238    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3240
3241    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3243
3244    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3246
3247    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3249
3250    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3252
3253    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3255
3256    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3258
3259    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3260        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3261
3262    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3263        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3264            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3265            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3266
3267        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3268
3269    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3270        this = expression.this
3271        expr = expression.expression
3272
3273        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3274            this, expr = expr, this
3275        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3276            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3277                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3278
3279            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3280
3281        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3282
3283    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3284        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3285        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3287        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3288        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3289
3290    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3291        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3292        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3293
3294    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3295        args = []
3296
3297        for key in expression.arg_types:
3298            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3299
3300            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3301                for value in arg_value:
3302                    args.append(value)
3303            elif arg_value is not None:
3304                args.append(arg_value)
3305
3306        if self.normalize_functions:
3307            name = expression.sql_name()
3308        else:
3309            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3310
3311        return self.func(name, *args)
3312
3313    def func(
3314        self,
3315        name: str,
3316        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3317        prefix: str = "(",
3318        suffix: str = ")",
3319    ) -> str:
3320        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3321
3322    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3323        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3324        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3325            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3326        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3327
3328    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3329        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3330
3331    def format_time(
3332        self,
3333        expression: exp.Expression,
3334        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3335        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3336    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3337        return format_time(
3338            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3339            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3340            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3341        )
3342
3343    def expressions(
3344        self,
3345        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3346        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3347        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3348        flat: bool = False,
3349        indent: bool = True,
3350        skip_first: bool = False,
3351        skip_last: bool = False,
3352        sep: str = ", ",
3353        prefix: str = "",
3354        dynamic: bool = False,
3355        new_line: bool = False,
3356    ) -> str:
3357        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3358
3359        if not expressions:
3360            return ""
3361
3362        if flat:
3363            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3364
3365        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3366
3367        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3368        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3369            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3370
3371        result_sqls = []
3372        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3373            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3374            if not sql:
3375                continue
3376
3377            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3378
3379            if self.pretty:
3380                if self.leading_comma:
3381                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3382                else:
3383                    result_sqls.append(
3384                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3385                    )
3386            else:
3387                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3388
3389        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3390            if new_line:
3391                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3392                result_sqls.append("")
3393            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3394        else:
3395            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3396        return (
3397            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3398            if indent
3399            else result_sql
3400        )
3401
3402    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3403        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3404        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3405        if flat:
3406            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3407        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3408
3409    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3410        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3411        if not property_name:
3412            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3413        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3414
3415    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3416        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3417
3418    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3419        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3420
3421    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3423        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3424        expressions = (
3425            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3426        )
3427        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3428
3429    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3431        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3432        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3433
3434    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3435        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3436
3437    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3438        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3439        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3440        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3441        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3442
3443        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3444        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3445            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3446            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3447            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3448            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3449        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3450            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3451                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3452            else:
3453                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3454        else:
3455            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3456        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3457
3458    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3459        table = expression.this
3460        table_alias = ""
3461
3462        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3463        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3464            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3465            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3466
3467        this = self.sql(table)
3468        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3469        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3470        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3471        sep = self.sep()
3472
3473        return self.prepend_ctes(
3474            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3475        )
3476
3477    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3478        if expression.args.get("format"):
3479            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3480
3481        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3482
3483    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3484        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3485            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3486            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3487
3488        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3489        if not fmt:
3490            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3491            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3492
3493        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3494
3495    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3497        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3498        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3499        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3500        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3501
3502    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3504        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3505        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3506        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3507
3508    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3510
3511    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3512        return ""
3513
3514    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3515        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3516        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3517        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3518        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3519        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3520
3521    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3523        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3524
3525        if having:
3526            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3527
3528        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3529
3530    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3531        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3532        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3533        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3534        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3535        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3536        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3537        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3538        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3539        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3540        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3541        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3542        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3543        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3544
3545    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3546        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3547        if key_block_size:
3548            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3549
3550        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3551        if using:
3552            return f"USING {using}"
3553
3554        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3555        if parser:
3556            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3557
3558        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3559        if comment:
3560            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3561
3562        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3563        if visible is not None:
3564            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3565
3566        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3567        if engine_attr:
3568            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3569
3570        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3571        if secondary_engine_attr:
3572            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3573
3574        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3575        return ""
3576
3577    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3578        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3579        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3580
3581    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3582        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3583        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3585        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3586        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3587        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3589        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3590        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3591        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3592        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3593
3594    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3595        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3596            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3597
3598        case = exp.Case().when(
3599            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3600            expression.args["true"],
3601            copy=False,
3602        )
3603        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3604        if else_cond:
3605            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3606
3607        return self.sql(case)
3608
3609    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3611        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3612        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3613        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3614        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3615        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3616
3617    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3618        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3619
3620    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3621        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3622
3623    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3624        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3625        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3626        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3627        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3628        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3629        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3630
3631    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3633        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3634        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3635
3636    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3638        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3639        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3640
3641    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3642        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3643
3644    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3645        arg = expression.this
3646        if not arg.type:
3647            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3648
3649            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3650
3651        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3652            return self.sql(arg)
3653
3654        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3655        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3656
3657    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3658        this = expression.this
3659        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3660            return self.sql(this)
3661
3662        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3663
3664    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3665        this = expression.this
3666        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3667            return self.sql(this)
3668
3669        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3670
3671    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3672        this = expression.this
3673        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3674
3675        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3676            return self.sql(
3677                exp.cast(
3678                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3679                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3680                )
3681            )
3682
3683        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3684            return self.sql(this)
3685
3686        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3687
3688    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3689        return self.sql(
3690            exp.func(
3691                "DATEDIFF",
3692                expression.this,
3693                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3694                "day",
3695            )
3696        )
3697
3698    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3699        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3700            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3701
3702        unit = expression.text("unit")
3703        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3704            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3705
3706        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3707
3708    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3709        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3710
3711        return self.func(
3712            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3713        )
3714
3715    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3716        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3717            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3718            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3719            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3720            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3721
3722        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3723
3724        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3725        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3726            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3727
3728        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3729
3730    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3731        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3732        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3733
3734    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3735        expression.set(
3736            "expressions",
3737            [
3738                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3739                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3740                else e
3741                for e in expression.expressions
3742            ],
3743        )
3744
3745        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3746
3747    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3748        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3749        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3750
3751        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3752
3753    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3754        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3755        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3756
3757        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3758
3759        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3760        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3761
3762        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3763        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3764
3765        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3766        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3767
3768        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3769        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3770
3771        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3772
3773    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3774    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3775    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3776        to = expression.this
3777        value = expression.expression
3778        style = expression.args.get("style")
3779        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3780        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3781
3782        if not to or not value:
3783            return ""
3784
3785        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3786        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3787            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3788
3789        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3790        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3791
3792        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3793        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3794            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3795
3796            style_value = style.name
3797            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3798            if not converted_style:
3799                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3800
3801            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3802
3803            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3804                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3805            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3806                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3807            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3808                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3809            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3810                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3811
3812        if not transformed:
3813            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3814
3815        return self.sql(transformed)
3816
3817    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3818        this = expression.this
3819        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3820            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3821            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3822
3823        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3824            return f".{this}"
3825
3826        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3827        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3828
3829    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3830        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3831        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3832
3833    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3834        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3835            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3836
3837            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3838
3839        return expression
3840
3841    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3842        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3843            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3844            mods = sorted(
3845                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3846                key=lambda x: 0
3847                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3848                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3849            )
3850
3851            if mods:
3852                mod = mods[0]
3853                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3854                this.meta["inline"] = True
3855                mod.this.replace(this)
3856                return self.sql(expression.this)
3857
3858            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3859
3860            if agg_func:
3861                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3862
3863        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3864
3865    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3866        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3867        if self.pretty:
3868            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3869        return string
3870
3871    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3872        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3873
3874        if expression.expressions:
3875            upper = option.upper()
3876
3877            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3878            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3879
3880            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3881            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3882            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3883            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3884
3885        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3886
3887        if not value:
3888            return option
3889
3890        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3891
3892        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3893
3894    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3895        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3896        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3897            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3898            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3899            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3900        else:
3901            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3902            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3903            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3904
3905        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3906        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3907
3908        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3909        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3910
3911        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3912        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3913
3914        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3915        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3916
3917        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3918
3919    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3921        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3922
3923        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3924        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3925        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3926        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3927
3928        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3929        params = self.expressions(
3930            expression,
3931            key="params",
3932            sep=sep,
3933            new_line=True,
3934            skip_last=True,
3935            skip_first=True,
3936            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3937        )
3938
3939        if params:
3940            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3941                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3942            elif not self.pretty:
3943                params = f" {params}"
3944
3945        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3946
3947    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3948        return ""
3949
3950    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3951        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3952        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3953        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3954        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3955        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3956
3957        if filter_col or retention_period:
3958            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3959
3960        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3961
3962    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3963        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3964    ) -> str:
3965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3966        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3967        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3968        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3969
3970    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3972        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3973        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 112        ),
 113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 136        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 137        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 138        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 141        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 142        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 373        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 374        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 375        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 376        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 377        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 383    }
 384
 385    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 386        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 387        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 388        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 389        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 390        "DAYS": "DAY",
 391        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 392        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 393        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 394        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 395    }
 396
 397    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 398        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 399        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 400        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 401        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 402        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 403            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 404            if e.args.get("windows")
 405            else ""
 406        ),
 407    }
 408
 409    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 410
 411    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 412
 413    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 414    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 415
 416    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 417        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 419        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 432        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 439        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 441        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 443        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 444        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 446        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 454        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 455        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 458        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 460        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 463        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 466        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 480        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 486        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 488        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 491        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 494        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 495        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496    }
 497
 498    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 499    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 500
 501    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 502    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 503        exp.Create,
 504        exp.Delete,
 505        exp.Drop,
 506        exp.From,
 507        exp.Insert,
 508        exp.Join,
 509        exp.Select,
 510        exp.SetOperation,
 511        exp.Update,
 512        exp.Where,
 513        exp.With,
 514    )
 515
 516    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 517    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 518        exp.Binary,
 519        exp.SetOperation,
 520    )
 521
 522    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 523    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 524        exp.Column,
 525        exp.Literal,
 526        exp.Neg,
 527        exp.Paren,
 528    )
 529
 530    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 531        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 532        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 533        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 534        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 535    }
 536
 537    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 538    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 539
 540    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 541
 542    __slots__ = (
 543        "pretty",
 544        "identify",
 545        "normalize",
 546        "pad",
 547        "_indent",
 548        "normalize_functions",
 549        "unsupported_level",
 550        "max_unsupported",
 551        "leading_comma",
 552        "max_text_width",
 553        "comments",
 554        "dialect",
 555        "unsupported_messages",
 556        "_escaped_quote_end",
 557        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 558        "_next_name",
 559    )
 560
 561    def __init__(
 562        self,
 563        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 564        identify: str | bool = False,
 565        normalize: bool = False,
 566        pad: int = 2,
 567        indent: int = 2,
 568        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 569        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 570        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 571        leading_comma: bool = False,
 572        max_text_width: int = 80,
 573        comments: bool = True,
 574        dialect: DialectType = None,
 575    ):
 576        import sqlglot
 577        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 578
 579        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 580        self.identify = identify
 581        self.normalize = normalize
 582        self.pad = pad
 583        self._indent = indent
 584        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 585        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 586        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 587        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 588        self.comments = comments
 589        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 590
 591        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 592        self.normalize_functions = (
 593            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 594        )
 595
 596        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 597        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 598            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 599        )
 600        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 601            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 602        )
 603
 604        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 605
 606    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 607        """
 608        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 609
 610        Args:
 611            expression: The syntax tree.
 612            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 613                it is safer to copy.
 614
 615        Returns:
 616            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 617        """
 618        if copy:
 619            expression = expression.copy()
 620
 621        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 622
 623        self.unsupported_messages = []
 624        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 625
 626        if self.pretty:
 627            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 628
 629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 630            return sql
 631
 632        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 633            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 634                logger.warning(msg)
 635        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 636            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 637
 638        return sql
 639
 640    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 641        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 642        if (
 643            not expression.parent
 644            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 645            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 646        ):
 647            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 648
 649            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 650
 651        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 652            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 653
 654            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 655
 656        return expression
 657
 658    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 659        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 660            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 661        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 662
 663    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 664        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 665
 666    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 667        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 668
 669    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 670        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 671        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 672        return comment
 673
 674    def maybe_comment(
 675        self,
 676        sql: str,
 677        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 678        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 679        separated: bool = False,
 680    ) -> str:
 681        comments = (
 682            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 683            if self.comments
 684            else None
 685        )
 686
 687        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 688            return sql
 689
 690        comments_sql = " ".join(
 691            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 692        )
 693
 694        if not comments_sql:
 695            return sql
 696
 697        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 698
 699        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 700            return (
 701                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 702                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 703                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 704            )
 705
 706        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 707
 708    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 709        this_sql = (
 710            self.sql(expression)
 711            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 712            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 713        )
 714        if not this_sql:
 715            return "()"
 716
 717        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 718        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 719
 720    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 721        original = self.identify
 722        self.identify = False
 723        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 724        self.identify = original
 725        return result
 726
 727    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 728        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 729            return name.upper()
 730        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 731            return name.lower()
 732        return name
 733
 734    def indent(
 735        self,
 736        sql: str,
 737        level: int = 0,
 738        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 739        skip_first: bool = False,
 740        skip_last: bool = False,
 741    ) -> str:
 742        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 743            return sql
 744
 745        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 746        lines = sql.split("\n")
 747
 748        return "\n".join(
 749            (
 750                line
 751                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 752                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 753            )
 754            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 755        )
 756
 757    def sql(
 758        self,
 759        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 760        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 761        comment: bool = True,
 762    ) -> str:
 763        if not expression:
 764            return ""
 765
 766        if isinstance(expression, str):
 767            return expression
 768
 769        if key:
 770            value = expression.args.get(key)
 771            if value:
 772                return self.sql(value)
 773            return ""
 774
 775        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 776
 777        if callable(transform):
 778            sql = transform(self, expression)
 779        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 780            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 781
 782            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 783                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 784            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 785                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 786            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 787                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 788            else:
 789                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 790        else:
 791            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 792
 793        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 794
 795    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 796        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 798        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 799
 800    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 801        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 802        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 803        options = expression.args.get("options")
 804        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 805        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 806        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 807        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 808        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 809
 810    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 811        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 812            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 813        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 814        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 815
 816    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 817        return ".".join(
 818            self.sql(part)
 819            for part in (
 820                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 821                expression.args.get("db"),
 822                expression.args.get("table"),
 823                expression.args.get("this"),
 824            )
 825            if part
 826        )
 827
 828    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 829        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 830
 831        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 832            join_mark = ""
 833            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 834
 835        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 836
 837    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 840        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 841        return f"{position}{this}"
 842
 843    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 844        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 846        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 847        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 848        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 849        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 851        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 852
 853        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 854            kind = ""
 855
 856        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 857
 858    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 861        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 862
 863    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 866            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 867        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 868            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 869        else:
 870            persisted = ""
 871        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 872
 873    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 874        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 875
 876    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 877        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 878            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 879        else:
 880            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881
 882        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 883
 884    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 885        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 886    ) -> str:
 887        this = ""
 888        if expression.this is not None:
 889            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 890            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 891
 892        start = expression.args.get("start")
 893        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 894        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 895        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 896        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 897        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 898        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 899        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 900        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 901        cycle_sql = ""
 902
 903        if cycle is not None:
 904            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 905            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 906
 907        sequence_opts = ""
 908        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 909            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 910            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 911
 912        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 913        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 914
 915        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 916
 917    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 918        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 919    ) -> str:
 920        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 921        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 922        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 923
 924    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 925        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 926    ) -> str:
 927        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 928
 929    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 930        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 931
 932    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 933        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 934
 935    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 936        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 937        if desc is not None:
 938            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 939        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 940
 941    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 944        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 945        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 946        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 947        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 948        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 949
 950    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 951        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 952
 953    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 955        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 956        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 957
 958        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 959
 960        properties_sql = ""
 961        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 962            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 963        ):
 964            properties_sql = self.sql(
 965                exp.Properties(
 966                    expressions=[
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 968                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 969                    ]
 970                )
 971            )
 972
 973            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 974                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 975            elif not self.pretty:
 976                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 977                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 978
 979        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 980        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 981
 982        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 983        if expression_sql:
 984            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 985
 986            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 987                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 988                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                        exp.Properties(
 990                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 991                        ),
 992                        wrapped=False,
 993                    )
 994                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 995                else:
 996                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 997
 998        postindex_props_sql = ""
 999        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1000            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1001                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1002                wrapped=False,
1003                prefix=" ",
1004            )
1005
1006        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1007        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1008        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1009
1010        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1011        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1012
1013        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1014        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1015            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1017                sep=" ",
1018                prefix=" ",
1019                wrapped=False,
1020            )
1021
1022        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1023
1024        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1026            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(
1028                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1029                ),
1030                sep=" ",
1031                prefix=" ",
1032                wrapped=False,
1033            )
1034
1035        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1036        no_schema_binding = (
1037            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1038        )
1039
1040        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1041        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1042
1043        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1044        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1045
1046    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1047        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1048        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1049        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1050        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1051        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1052        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1053        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1054        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1055        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1056        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1057
1058        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1059        if cache is None:
1060            cache_str = ""
1061        elif cache is True:
1062            cache_str = " CACHE"
1063        else:
1064            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1065
1066        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1067        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1068
1069        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1070
1071    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1074        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1075        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1076
1077    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1078        style = expression.args.get("style")
1079        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1080        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1081
1082    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1083        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1084        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1085
1086    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1087        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1088        if with_:
1089            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1090        return sql
1091
1092    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1093        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1094        recursive = (
1095            "RECURSIVE "
1096            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1097            else ""
1098        )
1099
1100        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1101
1102    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1103        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1104
1105        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1106        if materialized is False:
1107            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1108        elif materialized:
1109            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1110
1111        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1112
1113    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1114        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1115        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1116        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1117
1118        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1119            columns = ""
1120            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1121
1122        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1123            alias = self._next_name()
1124
1125        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1126
1127    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1129        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1130            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1131        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1132
1133    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1135        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1136            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1137        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1138
1139    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1142            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1143        return this
1144
1145    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1148
1149        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1150            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1151            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1152        else:
1153            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1154            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1155
1156        if escape:
1157            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1158            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1159        else:
1160            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1161            escape_sql = ""
1162
1163        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1164            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1165
1166        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1167
1168    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1169        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1170        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1171
1172    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1175        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1176        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1177
1178    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1179        type_value = expression.this
1180
1181        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1182            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1183        else:
1184            type_sql = (
1185                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1186                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1187                else type_value
1188            )
1189
1190        nested = ""
1191        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1192        values = ""
1193
1194        if interior:
1195            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1196                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1197                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1198                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1199                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1200                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1201            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1202                nested = f" {interior}"
1203            else:
1204                nested = f"({interior})"
1205
1206        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1207        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1208            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1209            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1210        ):
1211            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1212
1213        return type_sql
1214
1215    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1216        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1217        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1218        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1219        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1220
1221    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1223        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1224        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1225        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1226        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1227        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1228        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1229        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1230        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1231        if self.RETURNING_END:
1232            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1233        else:
1234            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1235        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1236
1237    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1240        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1241        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1242        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1243        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1244        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1245        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1246        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1247        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1248        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1249        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1250        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1251
1252    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1253        return self.set_operations(expression)
1254
1255    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1256        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1257
1258    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1259        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1260        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1261        count = expression.args.get("count")
1262        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1263        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1264            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1265        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1266        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1267
1268    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1269        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1270            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1272            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1273
1274        agg = expression.this
1275        agg_arg = agg.this
1276        cond = expression.expression.this
1277        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1278        return self.sql(agg)
1279
1280    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1281        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1282            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1283            return ""
1284
1285        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1286
1287    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1288        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1289        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1290        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1291        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1292        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1293        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1294        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1295        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1296        if include:
1297            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1298        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1299        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1300        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1301        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1302        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1303        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1304
1305        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1306
1307    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1308        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1309        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1310        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1311        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1313        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1314        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1315
1316        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1317
1318        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1319        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1320
1321    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1322        text = expression.name
1323        lower = text.lower()
1324        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1325        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1326        if (
1327            expression.quoted
1328            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1329            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1330            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1331        ):
1332            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1333        return text
1334
1335    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1336        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1337        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1338            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1339
1340        return text
1341
1342    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1343        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1345            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1346        return text
1347
1348    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1349        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1350        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1351        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1352        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1353        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1354
1355    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1356        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1357        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1358
1359    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1360        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1361
1362    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1363        root_properties = []
1364        with_properties = []
1365
1366        for p in expression.expressions:
1367            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1368            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1369                with_properties.append(p)
1370            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1371                root_properties.append(p)
1372
1373        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1374        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1375
1376        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1377            with_props = " " + with_props
1378
1379        return root_props + with_props
1380
1381    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1382        if properties.expressions:
1383            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1384        return ""
1385
1386    def properties(
1387        self,
1388        properties: exp.Properties,
1389        prefix: str = "",
1390        sep: str = ", ",
1391        suffix: str = "",
1392        wrapped: bool = True,
1393    ) -> str:
1394        if properties.expressions:
1395            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1396            if expressions:
1397                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1398                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1399        return ""
1400
1401    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1402        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1403
1404    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1405        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1406        for p in properties.expressions:
1407            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1408            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1409                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1410            else:
1411                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1412
1413        return properties_locs
1414
1415    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1416        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1417            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1418        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1419
1420    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1421        property_cls = expression.__class__
1422        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1423            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1424
1425        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1426        if not property_name:
1427            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1428
1429        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1430
1431    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1432        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1433            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1434            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1435
1436            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1437            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1438                like = f"({like})"
1439
1440            return like
1441
1442        if expression.expressions:
1443            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1444
1445        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1446        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1447
1448    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1449        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1450        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1451        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1452
1453    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1454        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1455        local = expression.args.get("local")
1456        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1457        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1458        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1459        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1460        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1461
1462    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1463        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1465        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1466
1467    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1468        if expression.args.get("default"):
1469            property = "DEFAULT"
1470        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1471            property = "ON"
1472        else:
1473            property = "OFF"
1474        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1475
1476    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1477        if expression.args.get("no"):
1478            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1479        if expression.args.get("default"):
1480            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1481
1482        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1483        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1484
1485    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1486        default = expression.args.get("default")
1487        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1488        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1489        if default or minimum or maximum:
1490            if default:
1491                prop = "DEFAULT"
1492            elif minimum:
1493                prop = "MINIMUM"
1494            else:
1495                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1496            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1497        units = expression.args.get("units")
1498        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1499        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1500
1501    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1502        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1503        always = expression.args.get("always")
1504        default = expression.args.get("default")
1505        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1506        never = expression.args.get("never")
1507
1508        if autotemp is not None:
1509            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1510        elif always:
1511            prop = "ALWAYS"
1512        elif default:
1513            prop = "DEFAULT"
1514        elif manual:
1515            prop = "MANUAL"
1516        elif never:
1517            prop = "NEVER"
1518        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1519
1520    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1521        no = expression.args.get("no")
1522        no = " NO" if no else ""
1523        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1524        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1525        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1526        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1527        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1528
1529    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1530        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1531            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1532        if expression.this:
1533            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1534            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1535            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1536
1537        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1538        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1539        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1540
1541    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543
1544        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1545        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1546            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1547        else:
1548            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1549
1550        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1551
1552    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1553        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1554        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1555        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1556        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1557        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1558        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1559        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1560
1561    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1562        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1563        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1564        statistics_sql = ""
1565        if statistics is not None:
1566            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1567        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1568
1569    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1571        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1572        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1573        data_consistency = (
1574            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1575        )
1576        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1577        retention_period = (
1578            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1579        )
1580
1581        if this:
1582            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1583        else:
1584            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1585
1586        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1587
1588        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1589
1590    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1591        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1592        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1593
1594        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1595            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1596        else:
1597            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1598
1599        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1600        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1601        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1602        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1603        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1604        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1605        if is_function:
1606            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1607        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1608
1609        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1610        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1611        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1612        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1613        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1614        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1615        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1616        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1617
1618        if self.RETURNING_END:
1619            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1620        else:
1621            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1622
1623        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1625
1626    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1627        return self.set_operations(expression)
1628
1629    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1630        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1631
1632    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1633        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1634
1635    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1636        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1637        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1640        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1641
1642    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1643        return expression.name
1644
1645    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1646        return expression.name
1647
1648    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1649        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1650
1651        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1652        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1653
1654        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1655        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1656        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1657
1658        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1659        if expressions:
1660            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1661            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1662
1663        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1664
1665    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1666        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1667
1668    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1669        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1670        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1671        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1672        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1673        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1674        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1675        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1676        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1677        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1678        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1679        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1680        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1681        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1682
1683    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1684        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1685
1686    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1687        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1688        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1689        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1690        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1691
1692    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1695        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1696        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1697
1698    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1699        return ".".join(
1700            self.sql(part)
1701            for part in (
1702                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1703                expression.args.get("db"),
1704                expression.args.get("this"),
1705            )
1706            if part is not None
1707        )
1708
1709    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1710        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1711        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1712        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1713        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1714        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1715        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1717        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1718        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1719        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1720        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1721        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1722        joins = self.indent(
1723            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1724        )
1725        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1726
1727        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1728        if file_format:
1729            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1730            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1731            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1732
1733        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1734        if ordinality:
1735            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1736            alias = ""
1737
1738        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1739        if when:
1740            table = f"{table} {when}"
1741
1742        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1743
1744    def tablesample_sql(
1745        self,
1746        expression: exp.TableSample,
1747        sep: str = " AS ",
1748        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1749    ) -> str:
1750        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1751            table = expression.this.copy()
1752            table.set("alias", None)
1753            this = self.sql(table)
1754            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1755        else:
1756            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1757            alias = ""
1758
1759        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1760        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1761        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1762        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1763        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1764        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1765        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1766        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1767        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1768
1769        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1770        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1771            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1772
1773        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1774        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1775            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1776
1777        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1778        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1779            expr = f"({expr})"
1780
1781        return (
1782            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1783        )
1784
1785    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1787
1788        if expression.this:
1789            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790            if not expressions:
1791                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1792
1793            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1794            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1795            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1796            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1797            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1798
1799        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1800        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1801        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1802        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1803        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1804        if include_nulls is not None:
1805            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1806        else:
1807            nulls = ""
1808        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1809
1810    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1811        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1812        kind = expression.text("kind")
1813        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1814        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1815
1816    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1817        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1818
1819    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1821        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1822        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1823        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1824        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1825        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1826        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1827        if self.RETURNING_END:
1828            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1829        else:
1830            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1831        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1833
1834    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1835        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1836
1837        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1838        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1839            args = self.expressions(expression)
1840            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1841            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1842            values = (
1843                f"({values})"
1844                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1845                else values
1846            )
1847            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1848
1849        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1850        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1851        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1852
1853        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1854
1855        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1856            row = tup.expressions
1857
1858            if i == 0 and column_names:
1859                row = [
1860                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1861                ]
1862
1863            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1864
1865        if self.pretty:
1866            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1867            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1868            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1869            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1870            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1871
1872        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1873        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1874        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1875
1876    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1877        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1878
1879    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1880        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1881        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1882        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1883
1884    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1885        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1886
1887    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1888        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1889        if group_by_all is True:
1890            modifier = " ALL"
1891        elif group_by_all is False:
1892            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1893        else:
1894            modifier = ""
1895
1896        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1897
1898        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1899        grouping_sets = (
1900            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1901        )
1902
1903        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1904        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1905            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1906        else:
1907            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1908            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1909
1910        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1911        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1912            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1913        else:
1914            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1915            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1916
1917        groupings = csv(
1918            grouping_sets,
1919            cube_sql,
1920            rollup_sql,
1921            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1922            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1923        )
1924
1925        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1926            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1927
1928        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1929
1930    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1931        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1932        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1933
1934    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1935        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1936        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1937        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1938        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1939        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1940        return start + connect
1941
1942    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1943        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1944
1945    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1946        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1947            side = None
1948        else:
1949            side = expression.side
1950
1951        op_sql = " ".join(
1952            op
1953            for op in (
1954                expression.method,
1955                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1956                side,
1957                expression.kind,
1958                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1959            )
1960            if op
1961        )
1962        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1963        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1964        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1965        using = expression.args.get("using")
1966
1967        if not on_sql and using:
1968            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1969
1970        this = expression.this
1971        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1972
1973        if on_sql:
1974            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1975            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1976            if using:
1977                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1978            else:
1979                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1980        elif not op_sql:
1981            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1982                return f" {this_sql}"
1983
1984            return f", {this_sql}"
1985
1986        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1987            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1988
1989        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1990
1991    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1992        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1994        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1995
1996    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1997        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1998
1999        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2000        if cross_apply is True:
2001            op = "INNER JOIN "
2002        elif cross_apply is False:
2003            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2004        else:
2005            op = ""
2006
2007        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2008
2009    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011
2012        if expression.args.get("view"):
2013            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2014            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2015            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2016            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2017            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2018            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2019
2020        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2021        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2022        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2023
2024    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026
2027        args = [
2028            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2029            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2030            if e
2031        ]
2032
2033        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2034        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2035        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2036        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2037
2038        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2039
2040    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        value = expression.expression
2043        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2044        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2045        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2046        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2047
2048    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2049        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2050        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2053        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2054        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2055        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2056        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2057
2058    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2059        expressions = (
2060            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2061        )
2062        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2063        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2064
2065    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2066        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2067
2068    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2069        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2070            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2071            return ""
2072
2073        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2075        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2076        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2077
2078        if wait is not None:
2079            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2080                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2081            else:
2082                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2083
2084        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2085
2086    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2087        text = expression.this or ""
2088        if expression.is_string:
2089            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2090        return text
2091
2092    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2093        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2094            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2095            text = "".join(
2096                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2097            )
2098
2099        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2100            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2101        )
2102
2103    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2104        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2105        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2106        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2107        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2108        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2109        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2110        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2111        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2112        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2113        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2114        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2115
2116    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2117        return "NULL"
2118
2119    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2120        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2121
2122    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2124        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2125        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2126        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2127        interpolated_values = [
2128            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2129            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2130        ]
2131        interpolate = (
2132            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2133        )
2134        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2135
2136    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2137        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2138        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2139        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2140        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2141        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2142        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2143        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2144
2145    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2146        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2147
2148    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2149        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2150
2151    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2152        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2153
2154    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2155        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2156        asc = not desc
2157
2158        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2159        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2160        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2161        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2162        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2163
2164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2165
2166        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2167        nulls_sort_change = ""
2168        if nulls_first and (
2169            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2170        ):
2171            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2172        elif (
2173            nulls_last
2174            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2175            and not nulls_are_last
2176        ):
2177            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2178
2179        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2180        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2181            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2182            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2183                self.unsupported(
2184                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2185                )
2186                nulls_sort_change = ""
2187            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2188                if expression.this.is_int:
2189                    self.unsupported(
2190                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2191                    )
2192                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2193                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2194                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2195                nulls_sort_change = ""
2196
2197        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2198        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2199
2200        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2201
2202    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2203        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2204        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2205
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207
2208        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2209
2210    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2211        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2212        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2213        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2214        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2215        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2216        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2217        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2218        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2219        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2220        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2221        definition_sqls = [
2222            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2223            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2224        ]
2225        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2226        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2227        body = "".join(
2228            (
2229                partition,
2230                order,
2231                measures,
2232                rows,
2233                after,
2234                pattern,
2235                define,
2236            )
2237        )
2238        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2239        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2240        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2241
2242    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2243        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2244
2245        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2246            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2247        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2248            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2249
2250        return csv(
2251            *sqls,
2252            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2253            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2254            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2255            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2256            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2257            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2258            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2259            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2260            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2261            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2262            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2263            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2264            self.options_modifier(expression),
2265            sep="",
2266        )
2267
2268    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2269        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2270        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2271
2272    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2273        return ""
2274
2275    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2276        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2277    ) -> t.List[str]:
2278        return [
2279            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2280            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2281        ]
2282
2283    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2284        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2285        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2286        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2287
2288    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2289        into = expression.args.get("into")
2290        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2291            into.pop()
2292
2293        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2294        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2295        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2296        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2297
2298        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2299        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2300            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2301            limit.pop()
2302        else:
2303            top = ""
2304
2305        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2306
2307        if kind:
2308            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2309                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2310            else:
2311                if kind == "STRUCT":
2312                    expressions = self.expressions(
2313                        sqls=[
2314                            self.sql(
2315                                exp.Struct(
2316                                    expressions=[
2317                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2318                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2319                                        else e
2320                                        for e in expression.expressions
2321                                    ]
2322                                )
2323                            )
2324                        ]
2325                    )
2326                kind = ""
2327
2328        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2329        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2330        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2331        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2332        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2333            expression,
2334            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2335            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2336            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2337        )
2338
2339        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2340
2341        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2342            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2343                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2344            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2345                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2346            else:
2347                table_kind = ""
2348            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2349
2350        return sql
2351
2352    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2355        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2356
2357    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2358        if expression.expressions:
2359            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2360        return ""
2361
2362    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2363        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2364        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2365        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2366        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2367        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2368        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2369        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2370
2371    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2373        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2374
2375    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2377        kind = expression.text("kind")
2378        if kind:
2379            kind = f"{kind}."
2380        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2381
2382    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2384
2385    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2386        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2387        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2388
2389        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2390        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2391
2392        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2393        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2394
2395    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2396        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2397        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2398
2399    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2400        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2401            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2402            order = expression.args.get("order")
2403
2404            if limit or order:
2405                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2406
2407                if limit:
2408                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2409                if order:
2410                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2411                return self.sql(select)
2412
2413        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2414        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2415
2416        while stack:
2417            node = stack.pop()
2418
2419            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2420                stack.append(node.expression)
2421                stack.append(
2422                    self.maybe_comment(
2423                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2424                        comments=node.comments,
2425                        separated=True,
2426                    )
2427                )
2428                stack.append(node.this)
2429            else:
2430                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2431
2432        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2433        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2434        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2435
2436    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2437        return self.set_operations(expression)
2438
2439    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2440        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2441        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2442        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2443        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2444
2445    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2446        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2447
2448        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2449        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2450
2451        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2452            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2453                alias.append("columns", offset)
2454
2455        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2456            columns = alias.columns
2457            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2458        else:
2459            alias = self.sql(alias)
2460
2461        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2462        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2463            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2464        else:
2465            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2466                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2467            elif offset:
2468                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2469            else:
2470                suffix = alias
2471
2472        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2473
2474    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2475        return ""
2476
2477    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2478        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2479        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2480
2481    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2483        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2484        order = expression.args.get("order")
2485        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2486        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2487        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2488        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2489
2490        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2491
2492        first = expression.args.get("first")
2493        if first is None:
2494            first = ""
2495        else:
2496            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2497
2498        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2499            return f"{this} {alias}"
2500
2501        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2502        return f"{this} ({args})"
2503
2504    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2505        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2506        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2507
2508    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2509        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2510        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2511        end = (
2512            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2513            or "CURRENT ROW"
2514        )
2515        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2516
2517    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2520        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2521
2522    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2525        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2526        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2527
2528    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2529        return apply_index_offset(
2530            expression.this,
2531            expression.expressions,
2532            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2533        )
2534
2535    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2536        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2537        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2538        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2539
2540    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2541        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2542
2543    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2545        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2546            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2547                this = self.wrap(this)
2548            return f"ANY{this}"
2549        return f"ANY {this}"
2550
2551    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2552        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2553
2554    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2557
2558        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2559            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2560            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2561
2562        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2563
2564        if default:
2565            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2566
2567        statements.append("END")
2568
2569        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2570            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2571
2572        return " ".join(statements)
2573
2574    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2578
2579    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2580        order = expression.args.get("order")
2581        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2582        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2583
2584    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2586        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2587        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2588
2589    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2590        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2591
2592        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2593            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2594        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2595            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2596        else:
2597            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2598
2599    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2600        args = expression.expressions
2601        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2602            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2603
2604        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2605            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2606
2607        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2608            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2609
2610        return args
2611
2612    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2613        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2614
2615        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2616        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2617            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2618
2619        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2620
2621    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2622        return self.func(
2623            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2624        )
2625
2626    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2627        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2628        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2629
2630    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2632        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2633        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2634        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2635        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2636        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2637        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2638        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2639
2640    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2642        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2643        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2644        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2645
2646    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2647        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2648
2649    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2650        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2651        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2652        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2653
2654    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2655        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2656
2657    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2658        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2659        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2660
2661    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2662        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2663            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2664            if not callable(transform):
2665                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2666                return ""
2667
2668            return transform(self, expression)
2669
2670        if isinstance(expression, int):
2671            return str(expression)
2672
2673        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2674            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2675            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2676        else:
2677            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2678            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2679
2680        return escaped
2681
2682    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2683        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2684
2685    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2686        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2687        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2688
2689        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2690        if unique_keys is not None:
2691            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2692        else:
2693            unique_keys = ""
2694
2695        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2696        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2697        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2698        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2699
2700        return self.func(
2701            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2702            *expression.expressions,
2703            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2704        )
2705
2706    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2707        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2708
2709    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2710        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2711        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2712        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2713        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2714        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2715        return self.func(
2716            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2717        )
2718
2719    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2721        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2722        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2723        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2724        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2725        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2726        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2727        return self.func(
2728            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2729            this,
2730            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2731        )
2732
2733    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2734        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2735        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2736        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2737
2738        if nested_schema:
2739            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2740
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2743        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2744        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2745
2746    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2747        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2748
2749    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2751        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2752        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2753        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2754        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2755        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2756        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2757        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2758        return self.func(
2759            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2760        )
2761
2762    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2765        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2766        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2767        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2768        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2769
2770    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2772        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2773        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2774        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2775        with_ = (
2776            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2777            if expressions
2778            else ""
2779        )
2780        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2781
2782    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2783        query = expression.args.get("query")
2784        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2785        field = expression.args.get("field")
2786        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2787
2788        if query:
2789            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2790        elif unnest:
2791            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2792        elif field:
2793            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2794        else:
2795            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2796
2797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2798
2799    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2800        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2801
2802    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2803        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2804        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2805            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2806        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2807
2808        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2809            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2810            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2811
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        if this:
2814            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2815            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2816
2817        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2818
2819    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2820        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2821
2822    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2825        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2826        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2827        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2828        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2829
2830    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2831        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2832
2833    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2834        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2835        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2836
2837    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2838        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2839        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2840        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2841        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2842
2843    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2844        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2845
2846    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2847        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2848        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2850
2851    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2852        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2853        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2854
2855        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2856            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2857        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2858            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2859
2860        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2861
2862    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2863        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2864
2865    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2868        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2869
2870    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2873        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2874
2875    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2877        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2878        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2879
2880    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2881        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2882
2883    def and_sql(
2884        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2885    ) -> str:
2886        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2887
2888    def or_sql(
2889        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2890    ) -> str:
2891        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2892
2893    def xor_sql(
2894        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2895    ) -> str:
2896        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2897
2898    def connector_sql(
2899        self,
2900        expression: exp.Connector,
2901        op: str,
2902        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2903    ) -> str:
2904        if stack is not None:
2905            if expression.expressions:
2906                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2907            else:
2908                stack.append(expression.right)
2909                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2910                    for comment in expression.comments:
2911                        if comment:
2912                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2913                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2914            return op
2915
2916        stack = [expression]
2917        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2918        ops = set()
2919
2920        while stack:
2921            node = stack.pop()
2922            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2923                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2924            else:
2925                sql = self.sql(node)
2926                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2927                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2928                else:
2929                    sqls.append(sql)
2930
2931        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2932        return sep.join(sqls)
2933
2934    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2936
2937    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2938        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2939
2940    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2941        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2942
2943    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2945
2946    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2947        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2948
2949    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2950        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2951
2952    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2953        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2954        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2955        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2956        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2957        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2958        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2959        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2960
2961    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2962        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2964
2965    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2966        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2967
2968    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2969        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2970            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2971        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2972
2973    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2975
2976    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2978        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2979        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2980        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2981        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2982        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2983
2984    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2987        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2988        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2989        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2990        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2991        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2992        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2993        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2994
2995    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2996        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2997        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2998        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2999        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3000
3001        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3002            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3003
3004        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3005
3006    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3007        return "BEGIN"
3008
3009    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3010        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3011        if chain is not None:
3012            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3013
3014        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3015
3016    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3017        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3018        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3019        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3020
3021    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023
3024        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3025        if dtype:
3026            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3027            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3028            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3029            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3030            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3031
3032        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3033        if default:
3034            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3035
3036        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3037        if comment:
3038            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3039
3040        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3041        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3042
3043        if not drop and not allow_null:
3044            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3045
3046        if allow_null is not None:
3047            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3049
3050        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3051
3052    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3055            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3056        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3057
3058    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3059        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3062        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3063        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3064
3065    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3066        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3067            # Remove db from tables
3068            expression = expression.transform(
3069                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3070            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3072        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3073
3074    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3075        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3076        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3077        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3078        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3079
3080    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3081        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3082        return f"SET {exprs}"
3083
3084    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3085        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3086
3087        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3088            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3089        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3090            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3091        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3092            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3093        else:
3094            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3095
3096        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3097        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3098        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3099        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3100        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3101        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3102        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3103
3104    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3105        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3106            return self.expressions(
3107                expression,
3108                key="actions",
3109                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3110            )
3111        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3112
3113    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3114        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3115        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3116        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3117
3118    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3119        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3120
3121    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3122        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3123
3124        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3125            case = exp.case()
3126            for arg in expression.expressions:
3127                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3128            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3129
3130        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3131
3132        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3133        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3134        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3135
3136    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3137        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3138
3139    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3140        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3141
3142    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3143        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3144        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3145        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3146        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3147
3148    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3149        return self.sql(
3150            exp.Cast(
3151                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3152                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3153            )
3154        )
3155
3156    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3157        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3158            return self.func(
3159                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3160            )
3161        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3162
3163    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3164        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3165
3166        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3167            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3168
3169        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3170            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3171                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3172
3173        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3174            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3175                return self.sql(
3176                    exp.cast(
3177                        l / r,
3178                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3179                    )
3180                )
3181
3182        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3183
3184    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3186
3187    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3188        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3189
3190    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3191        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3192
3193    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3195
3196    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3198
3199    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3201
3202    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3204
3205    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3207
3208    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3210
3211    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3213
3214    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3216
3217    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3218        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3219            return self.sql(
3220                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3221            )
3222        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3223
3224    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3226
3227    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3229
3230    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3231        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3232
3233    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3235
3236    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3238
3239    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3241
3242    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3244
3245    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3247
3248    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3250
3251    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3253
3254    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3256
3257    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3259
3260    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3261        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3262
3263    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3264        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3265            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3266            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3267
3268        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3269
3270    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3271        this = expression.this
3272        expr = expression.expression
3273
3274        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3275            this, expr = expr, this
3276        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3277            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3278                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3279
3280            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3281
3282        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3283
3284    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3285        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3286        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3288        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3289        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3290
3291    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3292        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3293        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3294
3295    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3296        args = []
3297
3298        for key in expression.arg_types:
3299            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3300
3301            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3302                for value in arg_value:
3303                    args.append(value)
3304            elif arg_value is not None:
3305                args.append(arg_value)
3306
3307        if self.normalize_functions:
3308            name = expression.sql_name()
3309        else:
3310            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3311
3312        return self.func(name, *args)
3313
3314    def func(
3315        self,
3316        name: str,
3317        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3318        prefix: str = "(",
3319        suffix: str = ")",
3320    ) -> str:
3321        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3322
3323    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3324        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3325        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3326            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3327        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3328
3329    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3330        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3331
3332    def format_time(
3333        self,
3334        expression: exp.Expression,
3335        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3336        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3337    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3338        return format_time(
3339            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3340            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3341            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3342        )
3343
3344    def expressions(
3345        self,
3346        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3347        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3348        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3349        flat: bool = False,
3350        indent: bool = True,
3351        skip_first: bool = False,
3352        skip_last: bool = False,
3353        sep: str = ", ",
3354        prefix: str = "",
3355        dynamic: bool = False,
3356        new_line: bool = False,
3357    ) -> str:
3358        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3359
3360        if not expressions:
3361            return ""
3362
3363        if flat:
3364            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3365
3366        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3367
3368        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3369        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3370            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3371
3372        result_sqls = []
3373        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3374            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3375            if not sql:
3376                continue
3377
3378            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3379
3380            if self.pretty:
3381                if self.leading_comma:
3382                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3383                else:
3384                    result_sqls.append(
3385                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3386                    )
3387            else:
3388                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3389
3390        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3391            if new_line:
3392                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3393                result_sqls.append("")
3394            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3395        else:
3396            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3397        return (
3398            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3399            if indent
3400            else result_sql
3401        )
3402
3403    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3404        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3405        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3406        if flat:
3407            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3408        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3409
3410    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3411        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3412        if not property_name:
3413            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3414        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3415
3416    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3417        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3418
3419    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3420        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3421
3422    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3424        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3425        expressions = (
3426            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3427        )
3428        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3429
3430    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3432        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3433        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3434
3435    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3437
3438    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3439        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3440        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3441        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3442        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3443
3444        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3445        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3446            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3447            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3448            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3449            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3450        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3451            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3452                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3453            else:
3454                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3455        else:
3456            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3457        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3458
3459    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3460        table = expression.this
3461        table_alias = ""
3462
3463        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3464        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3465            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3466            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3467
3468        this = self.sql(table)
3469        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3470        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3471        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3472        sep = self.sep()
3473
3474        return self.prepend_ctes(
3475            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3476        )
3477
3478    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3479        if expression.args.get("format"):
3480            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3481
3482        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3483
3484    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3485        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3486            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3487            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3488
3489        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3490        if not fmt:
3491            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3492            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3493
3494        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3495
3496    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3498        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3499        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3500        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3501        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3502
3503    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3505        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3506        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3507        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3508
3509    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3511
3512    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3513        return ""
3514
3515    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3517        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3518        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3519        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3520        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3521
3522    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3524        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3525
3526        if having:
3527            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3528
3529        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3530
3531    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3532        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3533        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3534        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3535        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3536        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3537        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3538        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3539        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3540        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3541        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3542        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3543        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3544        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3545
3546    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3547        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3548        if key_block_size:
3549            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3550
3551        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3552        if using:
3553            return f"USING {using}"
3554
3555        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3556        if parser:
3557            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3558
3559        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3560        if comment:
3561            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3562
3563        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3564        if visible is not None:
3565            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3566
3567        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3568        if engine_attr:
3569            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3570
3571        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3572        if secondary_engine_attr:
3573            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3574
3575        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3576        return ""
3577
3578    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3579        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3580        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3581
3582    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3583        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3584        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3586        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3587        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3588        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3589        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3590        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3591        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3592        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3593        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3594
3595    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3596        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3597            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3598
3599        case = exp.Case().when(
3600            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3601            expression.args["true"],
3602            copy=False,
3603        )
3604        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3605        if else_cond:
3606            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3607
3608        return self.sql(case)
3609
3610    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3612        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3613        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3614        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3615        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3616        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3617
3618    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3619        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3620
3621    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3622        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3623
3624    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3625        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3626        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3627        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3628        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3629        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3630        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3631
3632    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3634        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3635        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3636
3637    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3640        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3641
3642    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3643        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3644
3645    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3646        arg = expression.this
3647        if not arg.type:
3648            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3649
3650            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3651
3652        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3653            return self.sql(arg)
3654
3655        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3656        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3657
3658    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3659        this = expression.this
3660        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3661            return self.sql(this)
3662
3663        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3664
3665    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3666        this = expression.this
3667        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3668            return self.sql(this)
3669
3670        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3671
3672    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3673        this = expression.this
3674        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3675
3676        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3677            return self.sql(
3678                exp.cast(
3679                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3680                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3681                )
3682            )
3683
3684        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3685            return self.sql(this)
3686
3687        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3688
3689    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3690        return self.sql(
3691            exp.func(
3692                "DATEDIFF",
3693                expression.this,
3694                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3695                "day",
3696            )
3697        )
3698
3699    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3700        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3701            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3702
3703        unit = expression.text("unit")
3704        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3705            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3706
3707        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3708
3709    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3710        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3711
3712        return self.func(
3713            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3714        )
3715
3716    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3717        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3718            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3719            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3720            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3721            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3722
3723        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3724
3725        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3726        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3727            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3728
3729        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3730
3731    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3732        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3733        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3734
3735    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3736        expression.set(
3737            "expressions",
3738            [
3739                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3740                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3741                else e
3742                for e in expression.expressions
3743            ],
3744        )
3745
3746        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3747
3748    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3749        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3750        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3751
3752        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3753
3754    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3755        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3756        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3757
3758        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3759
3760        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3761        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3762
3763        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3764        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3765
3766        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3767        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3768
3769        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3770        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3771
3772        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3773
3774    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3775    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3776    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3777        to = expression.this
3778        value = expression.expression
3779        style = expression.args.get("style")
3780        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3781        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3782
3783        if not to or not value:
3784            return ""
3785
3786        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3787        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3788            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3789
3790        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3791        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3792
3793        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3794        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3795            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3796
3797            style_value = style.name
3798            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3799            if not converted_style:
3800                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3801
3802            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3803
3804            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3805                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3806            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3807                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3808            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3809                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3810            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3811                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3812
3813        if not transformed:
3814            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3815
3816        return self.sql(transformed)
3817
3818    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3819        this = expression.this
3820        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3821            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3822            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3823
3824        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3825            return f".{this}"
3826
3827        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3828        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3829
3830    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3831        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3832        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3833
3834    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3835        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3836            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3837
3838            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3839
3840        return expression
3841
3842    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3843        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3844            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3845            mods = sorted(
3846                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3847                key=lambda x: 0
3848                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3849                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3850            )
3851
3852            if mods:
3853                mod = mods[0]
3854                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3855                this.meta["inline"] = True
3856                mod.this.replace(this)
3857                return self.sql(expression.this)
3858
3859            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3860
3861            if agg_func:
3862                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3863
3864        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3865
3866    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3867        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3868        if self.pretty:
3869            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3870        return string
3871
3872    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3873        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3874
3875        if expression.expressions:
3876            upper = option.upper()
3877
3878            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3879            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3880
3881            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3882            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3883            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3884            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3885
3886        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3887
3888        if not value:
3889            return option
3890
3891        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3892
3893        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3894
3895    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3896        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3897        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3898            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3899            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3900            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3901        else:
3902            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3903            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3904            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3905
3906        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3907        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3908
3909        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3910        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3911
3912        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3913        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3914
3915        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3916        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3917
3918        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3919
3920    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3922        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3923
3924        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3925        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3926        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3927        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3928
3929        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3930        params = self.expressions(
3931            expression,
3932            key="params",
3933            sep=sep,
3934            new_line=True,
3935            skip_last=True,
3936            skip_first=True,
3937            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3938        )
3939
3940        if params:
3941            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3942                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3943            elif not self.pretty:
3944                params = f" {params}"
3945
3946        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3947
3948    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3949        return ""
3950
3951    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3952        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3953        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3954        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3955        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3956        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3957
3958        if filter_col or retention_period:
3959            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3960
3961        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3962
3963    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3964        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3965    ) -> str:
3966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3967        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3968        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3969        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3970
3971    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3973        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3974        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
561    def __init__(
562        self,
563        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
564        identify: str | bool = False,
565        normalize: bool = False,
566        pad: int = 2,
567        indent: int = 2,
568        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
569        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
570        max_unsupported: int = 3,
571        leading_comma: bool = False,
572        max_text_width: int = 80,
573        comments: bool = True,
574        dialect: DialectType = None,
575    ):
576        import sqlglot
577        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
578
579        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
580        self.identify = identify
581        self.normalize = normalize
582        self.pad = pad
583        self._indent = indent
584        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
585        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
586        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
587        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
588        self.comments = comments
589        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
590
591        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
592        self.normalize_functions = (
593            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
594        )
595
596        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
597        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
598            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
599        )
600        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
601            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
602        )
603
604        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
606    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
607        """
608        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
609
610        Args:
611            expression: The syntax tree.
612            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
613                it is safer to copy.
614
615        Returns:
616            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
617        """
618        if copy:
619            expression = expression.copy()
620
621        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
622
623        self.unsupported_messages = []
624        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
625
626        if self.pretty:
627            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
628
629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
630            return sql
631
632        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
633            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
634                logger.warning(msg)
635        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
636            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
637
638        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
640    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
641        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
642        if (
643            not expression.parent
644            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
645            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
646        ):
647            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
648
649            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
650
651        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
652            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
653
654            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
655
656        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
658    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
659        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
660            raise UnsupportedError(message)
661        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
663    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
664        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
666    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
667        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
669    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
670        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
671        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
672        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
674    def maybe_comment(
675        self,
676        sql: str,
677        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
678        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
679        separated: bool = False,
680    ) -> str:
681        comments = (
682            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
683            if self.comments
684            else None
685        )
686
687        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
688            return sql
689
690        comments_sql = " ".join(
691            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
692        )
693
694        if not comments_sql:
695            return sql
696
697        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
698
699        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
700            return (
701                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
702                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
703                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
704            )
705
706        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
708    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
709        this_sql = (
710            self.sql(expression)
711            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
712            else self.sql(expression, "this")
713        )
714        if not this_sql:
715            return "()"
716
717        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
718        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
720    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
721        original = self.identify
722        self.identify = False
723        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
724        self.identify = original
725        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
727    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
728        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
729            return name.upper()
730        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
731            return name.lower()
732        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
734    def indent(
735        self,
736        sql: str,
737        level: int = 0,
738        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
739        skip_first: bool = False,
740        skip_last: bool = False,
741    ) -> str:
742        if not self.pretty or not sql:
743            return sql
744
745        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
746        lines = sql.split("\n")
747
748        return "\n".join(
749            (
750                line
751                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
752                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
753            )
754            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
755        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
757    def sql(
758        self,
759        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
760        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
761        comment: bool = True,
762    ) -> str:
763        if not expression:
764            return ""
765
766        if isinstance(expression, str):
767            return expression
768
769        if key:
770            value = expression.args.get(key)
771            if value:
772                return self.sql(value)
773            return ""
774
775        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
776
777        if callable(transform):
778            sql = transform(self, expression)
779        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
780            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
781
782            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
783                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
784            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
785                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
786            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
787                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
788            else:
789                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
790        else:
791            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
792
793        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
795    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
796        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
798        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
800    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
801        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
802        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
803        options = expression.args.get("options")
804        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
805        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
806        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
807        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
808        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
810    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
811        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
812            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
813        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
814        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
816    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
817        return ".".join(
818            self.sql(part)
819            for part in (
820                expression.args.get("catalog"),
821                expression.args.get("db"),
822                expression.args.get("table"),
823                expression.args.get("this"),
824            )
825            if part
826        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
828    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
829        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
830
831        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
832            join_mark = ""
833            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
834
835        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
837    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
840        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
841        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
843    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
844        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
846        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
847        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
848        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
849        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
850        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
851        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
852
853        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
854            kind = ""
855
856        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
858    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
860        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
861        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
863    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
865        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
866            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
867        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
868            persisted = " PERSISTED"
869        else:
870            persisted = ""
871        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
873    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
874        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
876    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
877        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
878            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
879        else:
880            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
881
882        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
884    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
885        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
886    ) -> str:
887        this = ""
888        if expression.this is not None:
889            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
890            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
891
892        start = expression.args.get("start")
893        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
894        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
895        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
896        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
897        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
898        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
899        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
900        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
901        cycle_sql = ""
902
903        if cycle is not None:
904            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
905            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
906
907        sequence_opts = ""
908        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
909            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
910            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
911
912        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
913        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
914
915        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
917    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
918        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
919    ) -> str:
920        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
921        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
922        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
924    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
925        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
926    ) -> str:
927        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
929    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
930        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
932    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
933        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
935    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
936        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
937        if desc is not None:
938            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
939        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
941    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
943        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
944        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
945        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
946        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
947        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
948        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
950    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
951        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 953    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 955        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 956        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 957
 958        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 959
 960        properties_sql = ""
 961        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 962            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 963        ):
 964            properties_sql = self.sql(
 965                exp.Properties(
 966                    expressions=[
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 968                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 969                    ]
 970                )
 971            )
 972
 973            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 974                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 975            elif not self.pretty:
 976                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 977                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 978
 979        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 980        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 981
 982        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 983        if expression_sql:
 984            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 985
 986            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 987                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 988                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                        exp.Properties(
 990                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 991                        ),
 992                        wrapped=False,
 993                    )
 994                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 995                else:
 996                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 997
 998        postindex_props_sql = ""
 999        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1000            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1001                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1002                wrapped=False,
1003                prefix=" ",
1004            )
1005
1006        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1007        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1008        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1009
1010        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1011        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1012
1013        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1014        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1015            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1017                sep=" ",
1018                prefix=" ",
1019                wrapped=False,
1020            )
1021
1022        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1023
1024        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1026            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(
1028                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1029                ),
1030                sep=" ",
1031                prefix=" ",
1032                wrapped=False,
1033            )
1034
1035        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1036        no_schema_binding = (
1037            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1038        )
1039
1040        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1041        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1042
1043        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1044        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1046    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1047        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1048        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1049        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1050        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1051        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1052        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1053        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1054        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1055        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1056        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1057
1058        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1059        if cache is None:
1060            cache_str = ""
1061        elif cache is True:
1062            cache_str = " CACHE"
1063        else:
1064            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1065
1066        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1067        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1068
1069        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1071    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1074        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1075        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1077    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1078        style = expression.args.get("style")
1079        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1080        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1082    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1083        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1084        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1086    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1087        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1088        if with_:
1089            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1090        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1092    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1093        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1094        recursive = (
1095            "RECURSIVE "
1096            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1097            else ""
1098        )
1099
1100        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1102    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1103        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1104
1105        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1106        if materialized is False:
1107            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1108        elif materialized:
1109            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1110
1111        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1113    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1114        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1115        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1116        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1117
1118        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1119            columns = ""
1120            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1121
1122        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1123            alias = self._next_name()
1124
1125        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1127    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1129        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1130            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1131        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1133    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1135        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1136            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1137        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1139    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1142            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1143        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1145    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1148
1149        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1150            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1151            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1152        else:
1153            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1154            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1155
1156        if escape:
1157            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1158            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1159        else:
1160            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1161            escape_sql = ""
1162
1163        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1164            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1165
1166        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1168    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1169        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1170        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1172    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1175        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1176        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1178    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1179        type_value = expression.this
1180
1181        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1182            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1183        else:
1184            type_sql = (
1185                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1186                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1187                else type_value
1188            )
1189
1190        nested = ""
1191        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1192        values = ""
1193
1194        if interior:
1195            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1196                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1197                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1198                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1199                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1200                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1201            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1202                nested = f" {interior}"
1203            else:
1204                nested = f"({interior})"
1205
1206        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1207        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1208            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1209            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1210        ):
1211            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1212
1213        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1215    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1216        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1217        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1218        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1219        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1221    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1223        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1224        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1225        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1226        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1227        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1228        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1229        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1230        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1231        if self.RETURNING_END:
1232            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1233        else:
1234            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1235        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1237    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1240        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1241        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1242        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1243        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1244        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1245        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1246        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1247        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1248        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1249        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1250        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1252    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1253        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1255    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1256        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1258    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1259        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1260        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1261        count = expression.args.get("count")
1262        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1263        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1264            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1265        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1266        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1268    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1269        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1270            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1272            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1273
1274        agg = expression.this
1275        agg_arg = agg.this
1276        cond = expression.expression.this
1277        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1278        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1280    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1281        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1282            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1283            return ""
1284
1285        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1287    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1288        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1289        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1290        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1291        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1292        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1293        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1294        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1295        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1296        if include:
1297            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1298        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1299        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1300        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1301        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1302        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1303        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1304
1305        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1307    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1308        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1309        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1310        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1311        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1313        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1314        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1315
1316        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1317
1318        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1319        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1321    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1322        text = expression.name
1323        lower = text.lower()
1324        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1325        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1326        if (
1327            expression.quoted
1328            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1329            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1330            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1331        ):
1332            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1333        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1335    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1336        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1337        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1338            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1339
1340        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1342    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1343        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1345            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1346        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1348    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1349        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1350        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1351        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1352        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1353        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1355    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1356        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1357        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1359    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1360        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1362    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1363        root_properties = []
1364        with_properties = []
1365
1366        for p in expression.expressions:
1367            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1368            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1369                with_properties.append(p)
1370            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1371                root_properties.append(p)
1372
1373        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1374        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1375
1376        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1377            with_props = " " + with_props
1378
1379        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1381    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1382        if properties.expressions:
1383            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1384        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1386    def properties(
1387        self,
1388        properties: exp.Properties,
1389        prefix: str = "",
1390        sep: str = ", ",
1391        suffix: str = "",
1392        wrapped: bool = True,
1393    ) -> str:
1394        if properties.expressions:
1395            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1396            if expressions:
1397                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1398                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1399        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1401    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1402        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1404    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1405        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1406        for p in properties.expressions:
1407            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1408            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1409                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1410            else:
1411                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1412
1413        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1415    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1416        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1417            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1418        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1420    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1421        property_cls = expression.__class__
1422        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1423            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1424
1425        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1426        if not property_name:
1427            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1428
1429        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1431    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1432        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1433            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1434            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1435
1436            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1437            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1438                like = f"({like})"
1439
1440            return like
1441
1442        if expression.expressions:
1443            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1444
1445        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1446        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1448    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1449        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1450        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1451        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1453    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1454        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1455        local = expression.args.get("local")
1456        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1457        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1458        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1459        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1460        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1462    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1463        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1465        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1467    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1468        if expression.args.get("default"):
1469            property = "DEFAULT"
1470        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1471            property = "ON"
1472        else:
1473            property = "OFF"
1474        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1476    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1477        if expression.args.get("no"):
1478            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1479        if expression.args.get("default"):
1480            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1481
1482        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1483        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1485    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1486        default = expression.args.get("default")
1487        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1488        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1489        if default or minimum or maximum:
1490            if default:
1491                prop = "DEFAULT"
1492            elif minimum:
1493                prop = "MINIMUM"
1494            else:
1495                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1496            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1497        units = expression.args.get("units")
1498        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1499        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1501    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1502        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1503        always = expression.args.get("always")
1504        default = expression.args.get("default")
1505        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1506        never = expression.args.get("never")
1507
1508        if autotemp is not None:
1509            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1510        elif always:
1511            prop = "ALWAYS"
1512        elif default:
1513            prop = "DEFAULT"
1514        elif manual:
1515            prop = "MANUAL"
1516        elif never:
1517            prop = "NEVER"
1518        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1520    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1521        no = expression.args.get("no")
1522        no = " NO" if no else ""
1523        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1524        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1525        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1526        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1527        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1529    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1530        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1531            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1532        if expression.this:
1533            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1534            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1535            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1536
1537        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1538        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1539        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1541    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543
1544        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1545        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1546            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1547        else:
1548            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1549
1550        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1552    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1553        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1554        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1555        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1556        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1557        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1558        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1559        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1561    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1562        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1563        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1564        statistics_sql = ""
1565        if statistics is not None:
1566            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1567        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1569    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1571        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1572        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1573        data_consistency = (
1574            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1575        )
1576        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1577        retention_period = (
1578            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1579        )
1580
1581        if this:
1582            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1583        else:
1584            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1585
1586        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1587
1588        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1590    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1591        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1592        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1593
1594        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1595            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1596        else:
1597            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1598
1599        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1600        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1601        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1602        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1603        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1604        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1605        if is_function:
1606            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1607        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1608
1609        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1610        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1611        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1612        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1613        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1614        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1615        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1616        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1617
1618        if self.RETURNING_END:
1619            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1620        else:
1621            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1622
1623        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1624        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1626    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1627        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1629    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1630        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1632    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1633        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1635    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1636        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1637        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1640        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1642    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1643        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1645    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1646        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1648    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1649        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1650
1651        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1652        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1653
1654        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1655        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1656        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1657
1658        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1659        if expressions:
1660            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1661            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1662
1663        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1665    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1666        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1668    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1669        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1670        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1671        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1672        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1673        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1674        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1675        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1676        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1677        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1678        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1679        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1680        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1681        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1683    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1684        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1686    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1687        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1688        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1689        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1690        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1692    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1695        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1696        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1698    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1699        return ".".join(
1700            self.sql(part)
1701            for part in (
1702                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1703                expression.args.get("db"),
1704                expression.args.get("this"),
1705            )
1706            if part is not None
1707        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1709    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1710        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1711        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1712        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1713        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1714        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1715        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1717        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1718        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1719        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1720        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1721        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1722        joins = self.indent(
1723            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1724        )
1725        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1726
1727        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1728        if file_format:
1729            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1730            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1731            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1732
1733        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1734        if ordinality:
1735            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1736            alias = ""
1737
1738        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1739        if when:
1740            table = f"{table} {when}"
1741
1742        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1744    def tablesample_sql(
1745        self,
1746        expression: exp.TableSample,
1747        sep: str = " AS ",
1748        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1749    ) -> str:
1750        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1751            table = expression.this.copy()
1752            table.set("alias", None)
1753            this = self.sql(table)
1754            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1755        else:
1756            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1757            alias = ""
1758
1759        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1760        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1761        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1762        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1763        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1764        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1765        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1766        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1767        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1768
1769        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1770        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1771            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1772
1773        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1774        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1775            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1776
1777        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1778        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1779            expr = f"({expr})"
1780
1781        return (
1782            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1783        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1785    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1787
1788        if expression.this:
1789            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790            if not expressions:
1791                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1792
1793            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1794            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1795            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1796            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1797            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1798
1799        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1800        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1801        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1802        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1803        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1804        if include_nulls is not None:
1805            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1806        else:
1807            nulls = ""
1808        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1810    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1811        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1812        kind = expression.text("kind")
1813        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1814        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1816    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1817        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1819    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1821        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1822        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1823        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1824        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1825        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1826        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1827        if self.RETURNING_END:
1828            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1829        else:
1830            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1831        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1834    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1835        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1836
1837        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1838        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1839            args = self.expressions(expression)
1840            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1841            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1842            values = (
1843                f"({values})"
1844                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1845                else values
1846            )
1847            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1848
1849        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1850        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1851        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1852
1853        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1854
1855        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1856            row = tup.expressions
1857
1858            if i == 0 and column_names:
1859                row = [
1860                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1861                ]
1862
1863            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1864
1865        if self.pretty:
1866            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1867            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1868            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1869            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1870            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1871
1872        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1873        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1874        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1876    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1877        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1879    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1880        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1881        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1882        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1884    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1885        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1887    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1888        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1889        if group_by_all is True:
1890            modifier = " ALL"
1891        elif group_by_all is False:
1892            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1893        else:
1894            modifier = ""
1895
1896        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1897
1898        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1899        grouping_sets = (
1900            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1901        )
1902
1903        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1904        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1905            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1906        else:
1907            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1908            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1909
1910        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1911        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1912            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1913        else:
1914            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1915            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1916
1917        groupings = csv(
1918            grouping_sets,
1919            cube_sql,
1920            rollup_sql,
1921            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1922            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1923        )
1924
1925        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1926            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1927
1928        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1930    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1931        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1932        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1934    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1935        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1936        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1937        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1938        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1939        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1940        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1942    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1943        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1945    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1946        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1947            side = None
1948        else:
1949            side = expression.side
1950
1951        op_sql = " ".join(
1952            op
1953            for op in (
1954                expression.method,
1955                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1956                side,
1957                expression.kind,
1958                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1959            )
1960            if op
1961        )
1962        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1963        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1964        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1965        using = expression.args.get("using")
1966
1967        if not on_sql and using:
1968            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1969
1970        this = expression.this
1971        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1972
1973        if on_sql:
1974            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1975            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1976            if using:
1977                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1978            else:
1979                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1980        elif not op_sql:
1981            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1982                return f" {this_sql}"
1983
1984            return f", {this_sql}"
1985
1986        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1987            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1988
1989        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1991    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1992        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1994        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1996    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1997        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1998
1999        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2000        if cross_apply is True:
2001            op = "INNER JOIN "
2002        elif cross_apply is False:
2003            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2004        else:
2005            op = ""
2006
2007        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2009    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011
2012        if expression.args.get("view"):
2013            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2014            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2015            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2016            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2017            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2018            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2019
2020        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2021        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2022        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2024    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026
2027        args = [
2028            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2029            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2030            if e
2031        ]
2032
2033        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2034        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2035        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2036        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2037
2038        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2040    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        value = expression.expression
2043        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2044        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2045        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2046        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2048    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2049        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2050        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2053        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2054        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2055        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2056        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2058    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2059        expressions = (
2060            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2061        )
2062        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2063        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2065    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2066        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2068    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2069        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2070            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2071            return ""
2072
2073        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2075        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2076        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2077
2078        if wait is not None:
2079            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2080                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2081            else:
2082                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2083
2084        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2086    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2087        text = expression.this or ""
2088        if expression.is_string:
2089            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2090        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2092    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2093        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2094            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2095            text = "".join(
2096                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2097            )
2098
2099        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2100            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2101        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2103    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2104        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2105        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2106        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2107        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2108        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2109        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2110        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2111        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2112        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2113        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2114        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2116    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2117        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2119    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2120        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2122    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2124        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2125        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2126        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2127        interpolated_values = [
2128            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2129            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2130        ]
2131        interpolate = (
2132            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2133        )
2134        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2136    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2137        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2138        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2139        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2140        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2141        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2142        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2143        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2145    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2146        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2148    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2149        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2151    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2152        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2154    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2155        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2156        asc = not desc
2157
2158        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2159        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2160        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2161        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2162        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2163
2164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2165
2166        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2167        nulls_sort_change = ""
2168        if nulls_first and (
2169            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2170        ):
2171            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2172        elif (
2173            nulls_last
2174            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2175            and not nulls_are_last
2176        ):
2177            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2178
2179        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2180        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2181            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2182            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2183                self.unsupported(
2184                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2185                )
2186                nulls_sort_change = ""
2187            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2188                if expression.this.is_int:
2189                    self.unsupported(
2190                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2191                    )
2192                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2193                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2194                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2195                nulls_sort_change = ""
2196
2197        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2198        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2199
2200        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2202    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2203        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2204        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2205
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207
2208        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2210    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2211        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2212        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2213        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2214        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2215        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2216        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2217        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2218        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2219        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2220        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2221        definition_sqls = [
2222            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2223            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2224        ]
2225        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2226        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2227        body = "".join(
2228            (
2229                partition,
2230                order,
2231                measures,
2232                rows,
2233                after,
2234                pattern,
2235                define,
2236            )
2237        )
2238        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2239        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2240        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2242    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2243        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2244
2245        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2246            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2247        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2248            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2249
2250        return csv(
2251            *sqls,
2252            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2253            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2254            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2255            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2256            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2257            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2258            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2259            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2260            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2261            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2262            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2263            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2264            self.options_modifier(expression),
2265            sep="",
2266        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2268    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2269        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2270        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2272    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2273        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2275    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2276        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2277    ) -> t.List[str]:
2278        return [
2279            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2280            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2281        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2283    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2284        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2285        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2286        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2288    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2289        into = expression.args.get("into")
2290        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2291            into.pop()
2292
2293        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2294        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2295        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2296        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2297
2298        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2299        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2300            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2301            limit.pop()
2302        else:
2303            top = ""
2304
2305        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2306
2307        if kind:
2308            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2309                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2310            else:
2311                if kind == "STRUCT":
2312                    expressions = self.expressions(
2313                        sqls=[
2314                            self.sql(
2315                                exp.Struct(
2316                                    expressions=[
2317                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2318                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2319                                        else e
2320                                        for e in expression.expressions
2321                                    ]
2322                                )
2323                            )
2324                        ]
2325                    )
2326                kind = ""
2327
2328        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2329        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2330        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2331        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2332        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2333            expression,
2334            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2335            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2336            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2337        )
2338
2339        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2340
2341        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2342            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2343                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2344            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2345                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2346            else:
2347                table_kind = ""
2348            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2349
2350        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2352    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2355        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2357    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2358        if expression.expressions:
2359            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2360        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2362    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2363        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2364        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2365        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2366        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2367        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2368        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2369        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2371    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2373        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2375    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2377        kind = expression.text("kind")
2378        if kind:
2379            kind = f"{kind}."
2380        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2382    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2385    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2386        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2387        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2388
2389        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2390        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2391
2392        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2393        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2395    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2396        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2397        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2399    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2400        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2401            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2402            order = expression.args.get("order")
2403
2404            if limit or order:
2405                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2406
2407                if limit:
2408                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2409                if order:
2410                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2411                return self.sql(select)
2412
2413        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2414        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2415
2416        while stack:
2417            node = stack.pop()
2418
2419            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2420                stack.append(node.expression)
2421                stack.append(
2422                    self.maybe_comment(
2423                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2424                        comments=node.comments,
2425                        separated=True,
2426                    )
2427                )
2428                stack.append(node.this)
2429            else:
2430                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2431
2432        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2433        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2434        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2436    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2437        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2439    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2440        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2441        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2442        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2443        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2445    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2446        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2447
2448        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2449        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2450
2451        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2452            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2453                alias.append("columns", offset)
2454
2455        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2456            columns = alias.columns
2457            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2458        else:
2459            alias = self.sql(alias)
2460
2461        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2462        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2463            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2464        else:
2465            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2466                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2467            elif offset:
2468                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2469            else:
2470                suffix = alias
2471
2472        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2474    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2475        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2477    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2478        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2479        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2481    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2483        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2484        order = expression.args.get("order")
2485        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2486        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2487        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2488        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2489
2490        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2491
2492        first = expression.args.get("first")
2493        if first is None:
2494            first = ""
2495        else:
2496            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2497
2498        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2499            return f"{this} {alias}"
2500
2501        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2502        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2504    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2505        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2506        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2508    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2509        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2510        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2511        end = (
2512            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2513            or "CURRENT ROW"
2514        )
2515        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2517    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2520        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2522    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2525        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2526        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2528    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2529        return apply_index_offset(
2530            expression.this,
2531            expression.expressions,
2532            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2533        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2535    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2536        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2537        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2538        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2540    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2541        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2543    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2545        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2546            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2547                this = self.wrap(this)
2548            return f"ANY{this}"
2549        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2551    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2552        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2554    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2557
2558        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2559            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2560            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2561
2562        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2563
2564        if default:
2565            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2566
2567        statements.append("END")
2568
2569        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2570            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2571
2572        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2574    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2579    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2580        order = expression.args.get("order")
2581        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2582        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2584    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2586        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2587        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2589    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2590        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2591
2592        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2593            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2594        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2595            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2596        else:
2597            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2599    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2600        args = expression.expressions
2601        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2602            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2603
2604        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2605            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2606
2607        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2608            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2609
2610        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2612    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2613        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2614
2615        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2616        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2617            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2618
2619        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2621    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2622        return self.func(
2623            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2624        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2626    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2627        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2628        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2630    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2632        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2633        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2634        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2635        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2636        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2637        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2638        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2640    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2642        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2643        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2644        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2646    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2647        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2649    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2650        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2651        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2652        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2654    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2655        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2657    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2658        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2659        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2661    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2662        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2663            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2664            if not callable(transform):
2665                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2666                return ""
2667
2668            return transform(self, expression)
2669
2670        if isinstance(expression, int):
2671            return str(expression)
2672
2673        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2674            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2675            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2676        else:
2677            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2678            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2679
2680        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2682    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2683        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2685    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2686        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2687        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2688
2689        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2690        if unique_keys is not None:
2691            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2692        else:
2693            unique_keys = ""
2694
2695        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2696        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2697        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2698        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2699
2700        return self.func(
2701            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2702            *expression.expressions,
2703            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2704        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2706    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2707        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2709    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2710        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2711        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2712        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2713        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2714        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2715        return self.func(
2716            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2717        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2719    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2721        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2722        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2723        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2724        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2725        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2726        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2727        return self.func(
2728            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2729            this,
2730            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2731        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2733    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2734        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2735        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2736        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2737
2738        if nested_schema:
2739            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2740
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2743        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2744        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2746    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2747        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2749    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2751        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2752        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2753        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2754        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2755        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2756        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2757        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2758        return self.func(
2759            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2760        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2762    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2765        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2766        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2767        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2768        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2770    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2772        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2773        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2774        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2775        with_ = (
2776            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2777            if expressions
2778            else ""
2779        )
2780        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2782    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2783        query = expression.args.get("query")
2784        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2785        field = expression.args.get("field")
2786        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2787
2788        if query:
2789            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2790        elif unnest:
2791            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2792        elif field:
2793            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2794        else:
2795            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2796
2797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2799    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2800        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2802    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2803        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2804        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2805            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2806        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2807
2808        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2809            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2810            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2811
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        if this:
2814            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2815            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2816
2817        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2819    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2820        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2822    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2825        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2826        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2827        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2828        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2830    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2831        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2833    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2834        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2835        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2837    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2838        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2839        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2840        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2841        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2843    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2844        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2846    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2847        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2848        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2851    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2852        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2853        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2854
2855        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2856            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2857        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2858            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2859
2860        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2862    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2863        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2865    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2868        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2870    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2873        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2875    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2877        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2878        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2880    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2881        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2883    def and_sql(
2884        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2885    ) -> str:
2886        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2888    def or_sql(
2889        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2890    ) -> str:
2891        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2893    def xor_sql(
2894        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2895    ) -> str:
2896        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2898    def connector_sql(
2899        self,
2900        expression: exp.Connector,
2901        op: str,
2902        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2903    ) -> str:
2904        if stack is not None:
2905            if expression.expressions:
2906                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2907            else:
2908                stack.append(expression.right)
2909                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2910                    for comment in expression.comments:
2911                        if comment:
2912                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2913                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2914            return op
2915
2916        stack = [expression]
2917        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2918        ops = set()
2919
2920        while stack:
2921            node = stack.pop()
2922            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2923                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2924            else:
2925                sql = self.sql(node)
2926                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2927                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2928                else:
2929                    sqls.append(sql)
2930
2931        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2932        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2934    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2937    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2938        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2940    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2941        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2943    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2946    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2947        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2949    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2950        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2952    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2953        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2954        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2955        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2956        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2957        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2958        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2959        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2961    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2962        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2965    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2966        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2968    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2969        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2970            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2971        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2973    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2976    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2978        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2979        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2980        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2981        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2982        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2984    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2987        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2988        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2989        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2990        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2991        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2992        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2993        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2995    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2996        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2997        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2998        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2999        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3000
3001        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3002            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3003
3004        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3006    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3007        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3009    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3010        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3011        if chain is not None:
3012            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3013
3014        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3016    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3017        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3018        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3019        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3021    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023
3024        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3025        if dtype:
3026            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3027            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3028            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3029            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3030            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3031
3032        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3033        if default:
3034            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3035
3036        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3037        if comment:
3038            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3039
3040        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3041        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3042
3043        if not drop and not allow_null:
3044            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3045
3046        if allow_null is not None:
3047            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3049
3050        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3052    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3055            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3056        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3058    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3059        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3062        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3063        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3065    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3066        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3067            # Remove db from tables
3068            expression = expression.transform(
3069                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3070            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3072        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3074    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3075        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3076        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3077        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3078        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3080    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3081        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3082        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3084    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3085        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3086
3087        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3088            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3089        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3090            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3091        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3092            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3093        else:
3094            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3095
3096        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3097        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3098        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3099        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3100        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3101        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3102        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3104    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3105        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3106            return self.expressions(
3107                expression,
3108                key="actions",
3109                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3110            )
3111        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3113    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3114        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3115        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3116        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3118    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3119        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3121    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3122        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3123
3124        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3125            case = exp.case()
3126            for arg in expression.expressions:
3127                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3128            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3129
3130        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3131
3132        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3133        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3134        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3136    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3137        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3139    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3140        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3142    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3143        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3144        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3145        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3146        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3148    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3149        return self.sql(
3150            exp.Cast(
3151                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3152                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3153            )
3154        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3156    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3157        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3158            return self.func(
3159                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3160            )
3161        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3163    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3164        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3165
3166        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3167            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3168
3169        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3170            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3171                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3172
3173        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3174            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3175                return self.sql(
3176                    exp.cast(
3177                        l / r,
3178                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3179                    )
3180                )
3181
3182        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3184    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3187    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3188        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3190    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3191        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3193    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3196    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3199    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3202    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3205    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3208    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3211    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3214    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3217    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3218        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3219            return self.sql(
3220                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3221            )
3222        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3224    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3227    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3230    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3231        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3233    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3236    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3239    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3242    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3245    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3248    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3251    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3254    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3257    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3260    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3261        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3263    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3264        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3265            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3266            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3267
3268        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3270    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3271        this = expression.this
3272        expr = expression.expression
3273
3274        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3275            this, expr = expr, this
3276        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3277            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3278                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3279
3280            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3281
3282        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3284    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3285        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3286        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3288        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3289        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3291    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3292        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3293        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3295    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3296        args = []
3297
3298        for key in expression.arg_types:
3299            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3300
3301            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3302                for value in arg_value:
3303                    args.append(value)
3304            elif arg_value is not None:
3305                args.append(arg_value)
3306
3307        if self.normalize_functions:
3308            name = expression.sql_name()
3309        else:
3310            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3311
3312        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3314    def func(
3315        self,
3316        name: str,
3317        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3318        prefix: str = "(",
3319        suffix: str = ")",
3320    ) -> str:
3321        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3323    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3324        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3325        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3326            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3327        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3329    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3330        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3332    def format_time(
3333        self,
3334        expression: exp.Expression,
3335        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3336        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3337    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3338        return format_time(
3339            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3340            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3341            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3342        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3344    def expressions(
3345        self,
3346        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3347        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3348        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3349        flat: bool = False,
3350        indent: bool = True,
3351        skip_first: bool = False,
3352        skip_last: bool = False,
3353        sep: str = ", ",
3354        prefix: str = "",
3355        dynamic: bool = False,
3356        new_line: bool = False,
3357    ) -> str:
3358        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3359
3360        if not expressions:
3361            return ""
3362
3363        if flat:
3364            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3365
3366        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3367
3368        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3369        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3370            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3371
3372        result_sqls = []
3373        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3374            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3375            if not sql:
3376                continue
3377
3378            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3379
3380            if self.pretty:
3381                if self.leading_comma:
3382                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3383                else:
3384                    result_sqls.append(
3385                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3386                    )
3387            else:
3388                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3389
3390        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3391            if new_line:
3392                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3393                result_sqls.append("")
3394            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3395        else:
3396            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3397        return (
3398            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3399            if indent
3400            else result_sql
3401        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3403    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3404        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3405        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3406        if flat:
3407            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3408        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3410    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3411        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3412        if not property_name:
3413            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3414        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3416    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3417        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3419    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3420        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3422    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3424        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3425        expressions = (
3426            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3427        )
3428        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3430    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3432        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3433        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3435    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3438    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3439        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3440        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3441        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3442        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3443
3444        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3445        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3446            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3447            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3448            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3449            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3450        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3451            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3452                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3453            else:
3454                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3455        else:
3456            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3457        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3459    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3460        table = expression.this
3461        table_alias = ""
3462
3463        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3464        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3465            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3466            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3467
3468        this = self.sql(table)
3469        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3470        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3471        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3472        sep = self.sep()
3473
3474        return self.prepend_ctes(
3475            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3476        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3478    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3479        if expression.args.get("format"):
3480            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3481
3482        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3484    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3485        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3486            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3487            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3488
3489        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3490        if not fmt:
3491            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3492            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3493
3494        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3496    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3498        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3499        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3500        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3501        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3503    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3505        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3506        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3507        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3509    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3512    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3513        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3515    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3517        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3518        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3519        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3520        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3522    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3524        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3525
3526        if having:
3527            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3528
3529        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3531    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3532        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3533        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3534        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3535        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3536        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3537        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3538        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3539        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3540        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3541        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3542        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3543        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3544        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3546    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3547        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3548        if key_block_size:
3549            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3550
3551        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3552        if using:
3553            return f"USING {using}"
3554
3555        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3556        if parser:
3557            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3558
3559        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3560        if comment:
3561            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3562
3563        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3564        if visible is not None:
3565            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3566
3567        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3568        if engine_attr:
3569            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3570
3571        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3572        if secondary_engine_attr:
3573            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3574
3575        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3576        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3578    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3579        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3580        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3582    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3583        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3584        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3586        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3587        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3588        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3589        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3590        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3591        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3592        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3593        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3595    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3596        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3597            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3598
3599        case = exp.Case().when(
3600            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3601            expression.args["true"],
3602            copy=False,
3603        )
3604        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3605        if else_cond:
3606            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3607
3608        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3610    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3612        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3613        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3614        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3615        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3616        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3618    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3619        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3621    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3622        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3624    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3625        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3626        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3627        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3628        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3629        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3630        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3632    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3634        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3635        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3637    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3640        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3642    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3643        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3645    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3646        arg = expression.this
3647        if not arg.type:
3648            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3649
3650            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3651
3652        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3653            return self.sql(arg)
3654
3655        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3656        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3658    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3659        this = expression.this
3660        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3661            return self.sql(this)
3662
3663        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3665    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3666        this = expression.this
3667        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3668            return self.sql(this)
3669
3670        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3672    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3673        this = expression.this
3674        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3675
3676        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3677            return self.sql(
3678                exp.cast(
3679                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3680                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3681                )
3682            )
3683
3684        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3685            return self.sql(this)
3686
3687        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3689    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3690        return self.sql(
3691            exp.func(
3692                "DATEDIFF",
3693                expression.this,
3694                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3695                "day",
3696            )
3697        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3699    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3700        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3701            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3702
3703        unit = expression.text("unit")
3704        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3705            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3706
3707        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3709    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3710        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3711
3712        return self.func(
3713            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3714        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3716    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3717        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3718            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3719            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3720            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3721            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3722
3723        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3724
3725        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3726        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3727            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3728
3729        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3731    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3732        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3733        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3735    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3736        expression.set(
3737            "expressions",
3738            [
3739                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3740                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3741                else e
3742                for e in expression.expressions
3743            ],
3744        )
3745
3746        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3748    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3749        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3750        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3751
3752        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3754    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3755        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3756        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3757
3758        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3759
3760        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3761        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3762
3763        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3764        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3765
3766        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3767        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3768
3769        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3770        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3771
3772        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3776    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3777        to = expression.this
3778        value = expression.expression
3779        style = expression.args.get("style")
3780        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3781        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3782
3783        if not to or not value:
3784            return ""
3785
3786        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3787        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3788            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3789
3790        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3791        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3792
3793        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3794        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3795            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3796
3797            style_value = style.name
3798            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3799            if not converted_style:
3800                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3801
3802            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3803
3804            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3805                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3806            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3807                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3808            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3809                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3810            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3811                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3812
3813        if not transformed:
3814            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3815
3816        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3872    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3873        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3874
3875        if expression.expressions:
3876            upper = option.upper()
3877
3878            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3879            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3880
3881            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3882            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3883            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3884            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3885
3886        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3887
3888        if not value:
3889            return option
3890
3891        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3892
3893        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3895    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3896        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3897        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3898            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3899            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3900            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3901        else:
3902            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3903            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3904            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3905
3906        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3907        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3908
3909        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3910        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3911
3912        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3913        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3914
3915        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3916        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3917
3918        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3920    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3922        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3923
3924        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3925        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3926        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3927        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3928
3929        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3930        params = self.expressions(
3931            expression,
3932            key="params",
3933            sep=sep,
3934            new_line=True,
3935            skip_last=True,
3936            skip_first=True,
3937            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3938        )
3939
3940        if params:
3941            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3942                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3943            elif not self.pretty:
3944                params = f" {params}"
3945
3946        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3948    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3949        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3951    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3952        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3953        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3954        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3955        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3956        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3957
3958        if filter_col or retention_period:
3959            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3960
3961        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3963    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3964        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3965    ) -> str:
3966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3967        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3968        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3969        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
3971    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3973        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3974        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])